-

Types of Dams, advantages, disadvantages and classification

What is a Dam?

A dam is a structure built across a stream, river or estuary to retain water. Dams are made from a variety of materials such as rock, steel and wood.

Structure of Dams:

Fig 1 : Structure of Dams

Definitions:

Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side
Toe: contact on the downstream side
Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest.
Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations.
Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir to downstream side
Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to
clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.

Advantages of Dams:

Dams gather drinking water for people -> Water Supply
Dams help farmers bring water to their farms -> Irrigation
Dams help create power and electricity from water -> Hydroelectric
Dams keep areas from flooding -> Flood Control
Dams create lakes for people to swim in and sail on -> Recreation & Navigation

Disadvantages of Dam

Dams detract from natural settings, ruin nature’s work
Dams have inundated the spawning grounds of fish
Dams have inhibited the seasonal migration of fish
Dams have endangered some species of fish
Dams may have inundated the potential for archaeological findings
Reservoirs can foster diseases if not properly maintained
Reservoir water can evaporate significantly
Some researchers believe that reservoirs can cause earthquakes.

Classification of Dams

Classification based on function

Storage Dam
Detention Dam
Diversion Dam
Coffer Dam
Debris Dam

Classification based on hydraulic design

Overflow Dam/Overfall Dam
Non-Overflow Dam

Classification based on material of construction

Rigid Dam
Non Rigid Dam

Classification based on structural behavior

Gravity Dam
Arch Dam
Buttress Dam
Embankment Dam
Rock-fill dam

1 – Gravity dams

Gravity dams are dams which resist the horizontal thrust of the water entirely by their own weight.
Concrete gravity dams are typically used to block streams through narrow gorges.
Material of Construction:
Concrete, Rubber Masonry

Fig 2 : Example of Gravity Dam Design

Fig 3 : The Grande Dixence Dam in 2004, facing west and Mont Blava (Source Wikipidea)

2- Arch Dam

An arch dam is a curved dam which is dependent upon arch action for its strength.
Arch dams are thinner and therefore require less material than any other type of dam.
Arch dams are good for sites that are narrow and have strong abutments.

Fig 4 : Jinping-I Dam also known as the Jinping-I Hydropower Station or Jinping 1st Cascade

Fig 5 : Typical vertical elements of Arch dams

3- Buttress Dam

Buttress dams are dams in which the face is held up by a series of supports.
Buttress dams can take many forms – the face may be flat or curved.
Material of Construction: Concrete, Timber, Steel

Fig 6 : Design of buttress Dam

Fig 7 : Roselend Dam in France

4- Embankment Dam

Embankment dams are massive dams made of earth or rock.
They rely on their weight to resist the flow of water.
Material of Construction: Earth, Rock

Fig 8: Embankment Dam Design

Fig 9 : Cross-sectional view of a typical earthen embankment dam

5- Rock-fill dam

These types of dams are made out of rocks and gravel and constructed so that water cannot leak from the upper stream side and through the middle of the structure. It is best suited in the area where rocks are around.

Fig 10 : Mohale Dam, Lesotho: highest concrete-face rock-fill dam in Africa

What is green concrete ? It’s advantages in construction

What is green concrete?

Green concrete can be defined as the concrete with material as a partial or complete replacement for cement or fine or coarse aggregates. The substitution material can be of waste or residual product in the manufacturing process. The substituted materials could be a waste material that remain unused, that may be harmful (material that contains radioactive elements).

Green concrete should follow reduce, reuse and recycle technique or any two process in the concrete technology.

Green concrete advantages:

The three major objective behind green concept in concrete :

– To reduce green house gas emission (carbon dioxide emission from cement industry, as one ton of cement manufacturing process emits one ton of carbon dioxide)

– To reduce the use of natural resources such as limestone, shale, clay, natural river sand, natural rocks that are being consume for the development of human mankind that are not given back to the earth,

– The use of waste materials in concrete that also prevents the large area of land that is used for the storage of waste materials that results in the air, land and water pollution. This objective behind green concrete will result in the sustainable development without destruction natural resources.

Some applications of Green Concrete:

Fig: Green concrete dam

Fig: Green Concrete Bridge – Musmeci Bridge

Fig: Green Concrete building

Fig: Green Concrete Road

Fig: Green Concrete Floor

What is better steel or concrete?

Construction projects require many decisions. A key decision is to find the most effective option, as well as determining which process could produce ideal results.

Take a look at this breakdown. This example weighs the pros and cons of Structural Steel versus Concrete.

Costs

Structural Steel: A large majority of all steel manufactured today comes from recycled materials; A992 steel. This recycling usage makes the material much cheaper when compared to other materials. Although the price of steel can fluctuate, it typically remains a less expensive option compared to reinforced concrete.

Concrete: A large cost benefit to concrete is the fact that its price remains relatively consistent. On the other hand, concrete also requires ongoing maintenance and repairs, meaning added costs throughout its lifetime. Supply-and-demand may also impact the availability of concrete. Even though it can be poured and worked with directly onsite, the process to completion can be lengthy and could accrue higher labor costs.

Strength

Structural Steel: Structural steel is extremely strong, stiff, tough, and ductile; making it one of the leading materials used in commercial and industrial building construction.

Concrete: Concrete is a composite material consisting of cement, sand, gravel and water. It has a relatively high compressive strength, but lacks tensile strength. Concrete must be reinforced with steel rebar to increase a structure’s tensile capacity, ductility and elasticity.

Fire Resistance

Structural Steel: Steel is inherently a non-combustible material. However, when heated to extreme temperatures, it’s strength can be significantly compromised. Therefore, the IBC requires steel to be covered in additional fire resistant materials to improve safety.

Concrete: The composition of concrete makes it naturally fire resistant and in line with all International Building Codes (IBC). When concrete is used for building construction, many of the other components used in construction are not fire resistant. Professionals should adhere to all safety codes when in the building process to prevent complications within the overall structure.

Sustainability

Structural Steel: Structural steel is nearly 100% recyclable as well as 90% of all Structural Steel used today is created from recycled steel. Due to its long lifespan, steel can be used as well as adapted multiple times with little to no compromise to its structural integrity. When manufactured, fabricated and treated properly, structural steel will have a minimal impact on the environment.

Concrete: The elements within concrete are natural to our environment, reducing the harm to our world. Concrete may be crushed and used in future mixtures. This type of recycling can reduce a presence of concrete in landfills.

Versatility

Structural Steel: Steel is a flexible material that can be fabricated into a wide array of designs for endless applications. The strength-to-weight ratio of steel is much higher when compared to other affordable building materials. Steel also offers many different aesthetic options that different materials, such as concrete, cannot compete with.

Concrete: Although concrete can be molded into many different shapes, it does face some limitations when it comes to floor-to-floor construction heights and long, open spans.

Corrosion

Structural Steel: Steel may corrode when it comes into contact with water. If left without proper care, it could affect the safety and security of a structure. Professionals should care for the steel with such processes such as water-resistant seals and paint care. Fire-resistant features may be included when water-resisting seals are applied.

Concrete: With proper construction and care, reinforced concrete is water resistant and will not corrode. However, it’s important to note that the steel reinforcement inside should never be exposed. If exposed, the steel becomes compromised and can easily corrode, compromising the strength of the structure.

Reference : blog.swantonweld.com

Concrete calculator formula

What is concrete?

Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials.

Concrete is a composite materialmade from several readily available constituents(aggregates, sand, cement, water).

Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixedto meet a variety of special needs and formed to virtually any shape.

What you should know Before Estimating :

Density of Cement = 1440 kg/m3
Sand Density = 1450-1500 kg/m3
Density of Aggregate = 1450-1550 kg/m3

How many KG in 1 bag of cement = 50 kg
Cement quantity in litres in 1 bag of cement = 34.7 litres
1 Bag of cement in cubic metres = 0.0347 cubic meter
How many CFT (Cubic Feet) = 1.226 CFT
Numbers of Bags in 1 cubic metre cement = 28.8 Bags

Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
Grade of cement = 33, 43, 53
Where 33, 43, 53 compressive strength of cement in N/mm2

M-20 = 1 : 1.5 : 3 = 5.5, (Cement : Sand : Aggregate)
Some of Mix is – 5.5

Where, M = Mix
20 = Characteristic Compressive strength

Consider volume of concrete = 1m3

Dry Volume of Concrete = 1 x 1.54 = 1.54 m3 (For Dry Volume Multiply By 1.54)

Calculation for Cement, Sand and Aggregate quality in 1 cubic meter concrete:

CALCULATION FOR CEMENT QUANTITY

Cement= (1/5.5) x 1.54 = 0.28 m³∴ 1 is a part of cement, 5.5 is sum of ratio
Density of Cement is 1440/m³

= 0.28 x 1440 = 403.2 kg

We know each bag of cement is 50 kg
For Numbers of Bags = 403.2/50 = 8 Bags

We Know in one bag of cement = 1.226 CFT

For Calculate in CFT (Cubic Feet) = 8 x 1.225 = 9.8 Cubic Feet

CALCULATION FOR SAND QUANTITY

Consider volume of concrete = 1m³

Dry Volume of Concrete = 1 x 1.54 = 1.54 m³

Sand= (1.5/5.5) x 1.54 = 0.42 m³∴ 1.5 is a part of Sand, 5.5 is sum of ratio

Density of Sand is 1450/m³

For KG = 0.42 x 1450 = 609 kg

As we know that 1m³ = 35.31 CFT

For Calculation in Cubic Feet = 0.42 x 35.31 = 14.83 Cubic Feet

CALCULATION FOR AGGREGATE QUANTITY

Consider volume of concrete = 1m³

Dry Volume of Concrete = 1 x 1.54 = 1.54 m³

Aggregate = (3/5.5) x 1.54 = 0.84 m³∴ 3 is a part of cement, 5.5 is sum of ratio

Density of Aggregate is 1500/m³

Calculation for KG = 0.84 x 1500 = 1260 kg

As we know that 1 m3 = 35.31 CFT

Calculation for CFT = 0.84 x 35.31 = 29.66 Cubic Feet

Concrete Quality calculation sheet download

Calculation for Cement, Sand quality in mortar for Plaster:

Area of brick wall for plaster = 3m x 3m =9m²

Plaster Thickness = 12mm (Outer-20mm, Inner 12mm)

Volume of mortar = 9m² 0.012m = 0.108m³

Ratio for Plaster Taken is = 1 : 6

Sum of ratio is = 7

Calculation for Cement Volume

Dry Volume of Mortar = 0.108 1.35 = 0.1458 m³

Cement= (1/7) = 0.0208 m³

Density of Cement is 1440/m³

= 0 1440 = 29.99 kg

We know each bag of cement is 50 kg

= (29.99/50) = 0.599 Bags

Calculation for Sand Volume

Sand = (6/7) x 0.1458 = 0.124m³

Density of Sand is 1450/m³

= 0 1450 = 181.2 kg

Now we find how many CFT (Cubic feet) Required

As we know that 1m³ = 35.31 CFT

= 0.124*35.31

= 4.37 CFT (Cubic Feet)

Plaster calculation sheet download

Reference : tutorialstipscivil.com

BRIDGE REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

1. Introduction

Modern bridge infrastructure comprises of primarily concrete (reinforced or pre-stressed) and steel structures. Over the service life of a bridge, its constituent materials are continually subjected to fatigue and wear-tear due to dynamic vehicular loads. Overloading due to increase in wheel loads and regular exposure to aggressive external environment may aggravate the situation further.

Post-tensioned concrete bridges may also exhibit loss in pre-stress overtime, resulting in drop in load carrying capacities of the affected members. Poor quality of construction and lack of regular maintenance could potentially lead to major retrofit in a bridge structure. Furthermore, components facilitating expansion/ contraction of bridge and load transfer to the sub-structure, such as expansion joints & bearings, may also require rehabilitation or replacement over time.

Defects in the constituent materials may be manifested in the form of cracking – spalling of concrete, excessive deflection of structure, corrosion of steel components/ reinforcement etc. It is evident that rehabilitation of bridges involves addressing a myriad of problems and no single technique or retrofit method could offer a complete solution. Therefore, answer lies in being able to address each individual problem with an appropriate technique to result in a durable retrofit. This article aims at providing an overview of a variety of structural retrofit techniques available to rehabilitate bridges.

2. Reinforced / Pre-stressed Concrete Bridges

Most of the structural repair and retrofitting techniques used for ordinary reinforced concrete are applicable to reinforced concrete bridges as well. Structural repair techniques include crack injection with low viscosity epoxy and patch repair using an approved material such as polymer modified mortar or non-shrink grout. Strengthening techniques include concrete jacketing, steel plate or FRP (fibre reinforced polymer) bonding on the external surface of the member to be retrofitted.

For strengthening of pre-stressed concrete structures, external post-tensioning or FRP retrofit may be appropriate.

Concrete jacketing

Involves increasing size of the existing reinforced concrete section by adding more reinforcement and concrete. It could be accomplished by either of the following methods:

1. Conventional Concrete – Pouring concrete around the member to be strengthened with additional steel reinforcement properly anchored to the existing section. Ordinary concrete jacketing requires formwork and is time consuming due to long curing time. Furthermore, it is difficult to achieve a dense mix in constrained conditions. Adhesion is also an issue, especially for overhead applications.

2. Sprayed Concrete (Shotcrete) – Pneumatically projecting concrete on to the reinforced (usually with wire mesh) and prepared surface of the member being strengthened with a spray gun. A variety of additives and admixtures are also introduced to expedite strength gain, reduce rebound, reduce water requirement, curb shrinkage and improve adhesion.

The grading of aggregates is critical in sprayed concrete due to the absence of external vibration and the reduction in the quantity of coarse aggregates as a result of rebound. Shotcrete does not require formwork and is useful to retrofit large areas in a relatively short period of time. But, the operation is very messy with enormous loss of sprayed materials, resulting not only wastage of materials but an unsightly-rough surface finish too. It is not economical for small areas of retrofit due to high setup and machinery costs.

3. Pre-Packed Aggregate Grouting – Pumping of cementitious grout into washed/ graded coarse aggregates placed with properly anchored reinforcement around the member to be strengthened in a tightly sealed formwork. It is one of the better ways of jacketing a concrete member as it results in a dense mix with good surface finish.

Regardless of the method deployed, jacketing results in increase in dimensions as well as dead weight of the retrofitted member.

Steel Plate Bonding

This technique involves enhancing strength (shear, flexure, compression) or improving stiffness of deficient reinforced concrete members by bonding steel plates of calculated thickness with adhesives and anchors to the existing sections.

Steel plate not only acts as externally bonded reinforcement to the concrete section but it also improves the moment of inertia (stiffness) of the composite (concrete-steel) section. This technique is useful for the flexural and shear strengthening of bending elements such as beams and slabs and for compression capacity enhancement of columns.

Steel plate bonding is a cumbersome process requiring extensive hacking & drilling in the existing section. Steel plates are hard to lift and need to be tailor made to suit to the as-built dimensions of the members. Resulting surface finish is unsightly and steel plate retrofit is prone to corrosion over time.

FRP Strengthening

A Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) typically consists of high tensile continuous fibres oriented in a desired direction in a speciality resin matrix. These continuous fibres are bonded to the external surface of the member to be strengthened in the direction of tensile force or as confining reinforcement normal to its axis. FRP can enhance shear, flexural, compression capacity and ductility of the deficient member.

Aramid, carbon, and glass fibres are the most common types of fibres used in the majority of commercially available FRPs. FRP systems, commonly used for structural applications, come in many forms including wet lay-up (fibre sheets or fabrics saturated at site), pre-preg (pre-impregnated fibre sheets of fabrics off site) and pre-cured (composite sheets and shapes manufactured off-site).

The properties of an FRP system shall be characterized as a composite, recognizing not just the material properties of the individual fibres, but also the efficiency of the fibre-resin system and fabric architecture.

FRP strengthening is a quick, neat, effective, and aesthetically pleasing technique to rehabilitate reinforced and pre-stressed concrete structures. Unlike steel plates, FRP systems possess high strength to self-weight ratio and do not corrode. But, it is imperative to be aware of the performance characteristics of various FRP systems under different circumstances to select a durable and suitable system for a particular application.

It should be ensured that the FRP system selected for structural strengthening has undergone durability testing consistent with the application environment and structural testing in accordance with the anticipated service conditions. Suitably designed protective coatings may also be applied on an FRP system to protect it from exposure to adverse environmental conditions (acids, saltwater, UV exposure, impact, temperature, fire etc.).

External Post-Tensioning

Over the service life of a pre-stressed concrete member, loss in pres-stress may occur due to a variety of reasons. Post-tensioned bridges can be effectively rehabilitated by external post-tensioning technique to compensate for loss in pre-stress or increase in wheel loads.

In this technique, pre-stressing tendons or bars are located according to pre-determined profile on the external surface of the member to be strengthened according to design. Anchor heads are positioned at the ends of these tendons/ bars to post-tension the member using hydraulic jacks.

Although, this method is quite effective but it requires sufficient strength in the existing concrete to transfer the stress and exposed tendons & anchorages need to be protected against corrosion and vandalism.

3. Steel/ Composite Bridges

Components of a steel bridge need to be continually protected against environmental corrosion. Proper care needs to be exercised to maintain critical elements such as piles, piers, decks, suspension cables etc.

Piles and piers may be rehabilitated using bonded steel plates or FRP strengthening/ protection. Steel bridges are generally covered with a concrete decking, which gets worn off over time due to cyclic dynamic loads. It is a time consuming and cumbersome process to retrofit reinforced concrete decks with conventional methods. The following techniques are useful to rehabilitate a steel bridge deck:

Bridge Deck Replacement

Exodermic™Bridge Deck (www.dsbrown.com) is a modular deck replacement system consisting of a reinforced concrete slab composite with an unfilled steel grid. This arrangement maximizes the use of the compressive strength of concrete and the tensile strength of steel. Top portions of the main bars of the steel grid are specially designed with perforations that get embedded into the concrete to effectively transfer horizontal shear. The concrete component can be precast before the panels are installed on the bridge, or cast-in-place.

Overall thickness of the system ranges between 150mm and 250mm. The system is designed to speed up the construction process while reducing the dead load. A typical application weighs 35 to 50 percent less than a reinforced concrete deck that would be specified for the same span. It not only helps reduce dead load on the sub-structure but also enables bridge structure to sustain higher live loads.

The panelized nature of the Exodermic™ design is well suited for rapid, even overnight, redecking projects.

Bridge Cable Protection

Cableguard™ Elastomeric Wrap system (www.dsbrown.com) is a corrosion protection system exclusively developed to protect bridge cables, applicable during construction or rehabilitation of cable-stayed and suspension bridges.

The patented wrap material is based on cross-linking a chlorosulfonated polyethylene polymer that is manufactured into a three ply (polymer-fabric reinforcement-polymer) laminated construction. It comes in a wide variety of colours and hence, does not require painting.

Cableguard™ Elastomeric wrap is applied directly over existing cable coating using a Skewmaster™ automatic wrapping device to encapsulate the entire cable. Wrap is heated to fuse its overlapped portion and shrink it snuggly to the cable surface to result in an impermeable barrier against intrusion of moisture into the cable.

Although, the Cableguard™ wrap shrinks securely on the cable, it does not fuse or bond to the cable. Therefore, partial removal for inspection of the internal strands is not impaired. Application does not require sandblasting, high-pressure washing or any type of solvent cleaning, eliminating need for containment and disposal of hazardous materials.

Cableguard™ Elastomeric Wrap system presents a watertight sealing mechanism to protect bridge cables from corrosion and premature failure.

4. Rehabilitation of Expansion Joints and Bearings

Expansion Joints

Bridge expansion joints allow movement (expansion and contraction) resulting from temperature changes, shrinkage and creep etc. in the bridge structure, while maintaining its watertight integrity. Like bridge deck, they are continually subjected to dynamic vehicular wheel loads, wear & tear, and fatigue during their service lives.

Depending upon their movement capacities and make, expansion joints may fall into the categories of bituminous, rubberized or mechanical joints. They may also be categorized as bolted-down or positively anchored on the basis of their mode of anchorage with the bridge deck.

Generally, rubberized and finger bolt-down joints tend to loosen over time with the application of wheel loads. Upon loosening, dynamic forces are accentuated further that hamper proper functioning of the system as well as riding quality.

Sealing elements may also get damaged overtime due to wear and tear. Large movement joints such as modular expansion joint assemblies may also require replacement of their elastomeric components during their service lives.

Rehabilitation of bridge expansion joints poses the challenge of replacing the components or complete joint without disrupting traffic flow.

Generally, replacement is carried out lane by lane during off-peak hours to allow the traffic flow while work is underway. To accomplish, replacement of expansion joint with in a short period of time, it is important that the system proposed meets the following criteria:

1. Joint can be installed in a shallow box-out to limit cutting & hacking

2. Joint can be installed lane by lane

3. Nosing material is elastic and bonds well with the deck concrete and expansion joint mechanical elements

4. Nosing material sets quickly (less than an hour or so) without special curing requirements

5. System provides a water-tight integrity Delcrete™ Strip Seal Expansion joint systems (www.dsbrowm.com) meet all above-mentioned criteria and present an ideal solution to rehabilitate bridge expansion joints. Delcrete™ is a pour- in-place, free flowing, two-part polyurethane-based elastomeric concrete.

It has been compounded to bond to a variety of surfaces including steel and concrete. It is non-brittle over extreme temperature ranges, resistant to nearly all chemicals and has one-hour cure time.

Bridge Bearings

Bridge bearings primarily carry out the following functions:

1. Create a desired support system for the bridge superstructure

2. Transfer loads from the super-structure to the sub-structure

3. Allow movement and rotation of the superstructure Like expansion joints, bridge bearings also come in various types, makes and materials.

They fall into two broad categories of elastomeric and mechanical bearings. Elastomeric bearings are generally composed of neoprene or natural rubber, with or without steel plate reinforcement.

Mechanical bearings may be categorized into mechanical pot, roller, rocker, knuckle, or disc bearings. Defects in elastomeric bearings may be manifested in the form of cracking or tearing of elastomeric material, slip of steel reinforcing layer or the bearing itself, excessive shear movement in the bearing etc.

Mechanical bearings may also exhibit signs of distress during their service lives in the form of excessive movement/ rotation, bearing failure at sub-structure or super-structure, dislodging of components such as sliding surfaces/ materials, failure of anchorage systems etc. In most of these situations, it is advisable to replace the complete bearing assembly with a new one.

Therefore, provisions must be made at the design stage itself to ensure easy replaceability of structural bearings at a future date. To replace existing bridge bearing, it is necessary to make alternative arrangements for load transfer from the superstructure to the sub-structure during the duration of replacement.

Normally, hydraulic jacks are used to lift the bridge superstructure for replacement of the affected bearing. If the bridge sub-structure has sufficient space in the vicinity of the bearing to be replaced, then the hydraulic jacks can be placed on the substructure itself, otherwise supporting frame is erected from ground or friction gripped to the bridge pier to support the jacking arrangement. Bearing replacement exercise involves careful consideration of bearing pressures, effective load transfer mechanisms, ensuring balanced-gradual lifting and stability of superstructure, and speed of replacement.

What is RIBA plan of work?

The RIBA Plan of Work is published by the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). The latest version is also is endorsed by the Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists, the Construction Industry Council, the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland, the Royal Society of Architects in Wales and the Royal Society of Ulster Architects.

It was originally launched in 1963 as a fold out sheet that illustrated the roles of participants in design and construction in a simple matrix format. The first detailed plan of work was published in 1964 (ref. Introduction, RIBA Plan of Work 2007).

Split into a number of key project stages, the RIBA Plan of Work provides a shared framework for design and construction that offers both a process map and a management tool. Whilst it has never been clear that architects actually follow the detail of the plan in their day to day activities, the work stages have been used as a means of designating stage payments and identifying team members responsibilities when assessing insurance liabilities, and they commonly appear in contracts and appointment documents.

The Plan of Work has evolved through its history to reflect the increasing complexity of projects, to incorporate increasing and changing regulatory requirements and to reflect the demands of industry and government reports criticising the industry. It has moved from a simple matrix representing just the traditional procurement route, to include multiple procurement routes, more diverse roles, multi-disciplinary teams, government gateways and to add stages before and after design and construction. It is supported by other RIBA publications such as the RIBA Job Book.

The Plan of Work has been criticised for being too architect focused, for missing many of the client tasks undertaken at the beginning of a project, and for condensing construction into a single stage.

The latest version, published in 2013, has moved online and has undergone a radical overhaul. It is now more flexible, with stages such as planning permission and procurement being moveable, it reflects increasing requirements for sustainability and Building Information Modelling (BIM) and it allows simple, project-specific plans to be created. In addition, the work stages have been re-structured and re-named.:

0 – Strategic definition.
1 – Preparation and brief.
2 – Concept design.
3 – Developed design.
4 – Technical design.
5 – Construction.
6 – Handover and close out.
7 – In use.

There is also a BIM overlay and a sustainability overlay for the plan, but these do not seem to have been updated to reflect the 2013 work stage definitions.

The 2013 Plan of Work has come under some criticism as it is significantly less detailed than the previous 2007 edition, its flexibility and customisability is very limited and the definition and naming of work stages does not reflect the terminology that is used by the industry.

How can floor vibrations be assessed?

Improvements in vibration performance after construction are likely to be difficult to achieve and very costly. The assessment of vibrations should therefore be carried out as part of the serviceability checks on the floor during the design process.

The vibration performance of the floor can be assessed using manual methods, a new simplified web-based tool or finite element methods. Where a BIM model of the building is being created by the design team, the model should contain all the necessary information required to carry out the analysis.

Manual methods

Simplified assessment can be carried out by hand methods of analysis, although such calculations are generally conservative and in some cases to a great extent. Various methods are available, one of which is set out in SCI publication P354.

To avoid the possibility that walking activities could cause resonance or near-resonant excitation of the fundamental mode of vibration of the floor, neither the floor structure as a whole nor any single element within it should have a fundamental frequency of less than 3 Hz.

The assessment procedure involves the following steps:

• calculate the natural frequency of the floor system;

• determine the modal mass, i.e. the mass participating in the vibration;

• calculate the critical rms acceleration and the response factor;

• compare the response factor with the acceptance criteria for continuous vibration.

If the response factor is not acceptable, try a more comprehensive method of analysis such as the new simplified web-based tool or finite element modelling.

Simplified web-based tool

A new Floor Response Calculator is available on www.steelconstruction.info that allows designers to make an immediate assessment of the dynamic response of a floor solution. The results from this tool provide an improved prediction of the dynamic response compared to the ‘manual method’ in SCI P354. The tool may be used to examine complete floor plans or part floor plans, comparing alternative beam arrangements.

The tool reports the results of approximately 19,000 arrangements of floor grid, loading and bay size, which have been investigated using finite element analysis. The designer must select between a variable action of 2.5 kN/m2 and 5 kN/m2, being typical imposed loads on floors. 0.8 kN/m2 is added to allow for partitions.

The designer must also select the arrangement of secondary and primary beams, with typical spans, which depend on the arrangement of the beams. Secondary beams may be placed at mid-span or third points. The pre-set damping ratio of 3% is recommended for furnished floors in normal use.

When a decking profile is selected, an appropriate range of slab depths are then available to be selected. Generally, thicker slabs will produce a lower response factor. When selecting the slab depth, solutions which result in a response factor higher than 8 (the limit for a typical office) are highlighted.

The primary and secondary beams are selected automatically as the lightest sections which satisfy strength and deflection requirements; these cannot be changed by the user.

The selection of the lightest sections is made to produce the most conservative dynamic response, as stiffer beams will reduce the response. A visual plot of the response is also provided for both the steady state and transient response.

Hovering over the plot shows the response factor. Generally the higher response will be in an end bay, where there is no continuity. The fundamental frequency of the floor is presented on the output screen. If the actual design differs from the pre-set solutions in the tool, users should note the following:

• Using stiffer beams will reduce the response

• Using thicker slabs, and stiffer beams, will reduce the response

• The gauge of the decking has no significant impact on the response factor

• Voids that break the continuity of beam lines will lead to higher response factors

Finite element analysis

The most accurate and detailed assessments of floor vibrations are made using finite element (FE) analysis. Simple methods can be applied with reasonable accuracy for orthogonal grids but where a floor plate is not orthogonal (e.g. curved in plan), simple methods are inadequate.

In FE analysis the floor slab, beams, columns, core walls and perimeter cladding are modelled with finite elements with appropriate restraints applied to the elements in the model.

A model of the whole building is often already available for Building Information Modelling (BIM) and an individual floor can be extracted and modified to provide a model that is suitable for vibration analysis.A modal analysis is carried out first to determine the natural frequencies, mode shapes and modal masses.

Steady state and transient responses are then calculated for each mode of vibration and each harmonic of the forcing function (the walking activity). The modal responses are then added up for all the mode shapes and harmonics considered, and a predicted rms acceleration calculated for each point on the floor.

The final step is to divide the acceleration by the base value to determine the response factor. The results can be plotted in a contour plot.

Mitigation

If the floor response is found to be unacceptable during the design assessment, the designer has some freedom to make adjustments to the structural arrangement such that the vibration response is reduced to acceptable levels.

Possible measures include increasing the mass, stiffness and damping of the floor, and relocating or reducing the length of corridors

What are floor vibrations and why are they important?

The term ‘vibrations’ when applied to floors refers to the oscillatory motion experienced by the building and its occupants during the course of normal day-to-day activities.

This motion is normally vertical (up and down), but horizontal vibrations are also possible. In either case, the consequences of vibrations range from being a nuisance to the building users to causing damage to the fixtures and fittings or even (in very extreme cases) to the building structure.

The severity of the consequences will depend on the source of the motion, its duration and the design and layout of the building.Floor vibrations are generally caused by dynamic loads applied either directly to the floor by people or machinery. The most common source of vibration that can cause nuisance in building applications is human activity, usually walking.

Although small in magnitude, walking-induced vibrations can cause a nuisance to people working or living in the building, especially to the use of sensitive equipment or to those engaged in motion-sensitive activities, e.g. surgery.

Naturally, the problem is more acute for more vigorous types of human activity such as dancing and jumping and therefore designers of buildings featuring a gymnasium or dance studio should take extra care to limit the vibrations in the rest of the building.Machinery-induced vibrations are best dealt with at source through the provision of isolating mounts or motion arresting pads.

Machines installed in factories tend to produce the most severe vibrations due to their size and the nature of their operation. However, floor vibration is rarely a problem in most factories, since it is accepted by the workforce as part of the industrial environment.

Once constructed, it is very difficult to modify an existing floor to reduce its susceptibility to vibration, as only major changes to the mass, stiffness or damping of the floor system will produce any perceptible reduction in vibration amplitudes.

It is important therefore that the levels of acceptable vibration be established at the concept design stage, paying particular attention to the anticipated usage of the floors. The client must be involved in this decision, as the specified acceptance criteria may have a significant impact on the design of the floor and the cost of construction.

What is Concrete Slab Moisture

WHAT is the Problem?

Concrete slab moisture can cause problems with the adhesion of floor-covering material, such as tile, sheet

flooring, or carpet and bond-related failures of non-breathable floor coatings. Many adhesives used for installation of floor coverings are more water-sensitive than in the past, due to restrictions on the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

To warranty their products, manufacturers require that the moisture emission from the hardened concrete slab be less than some threshold value prior to installing floor coverings or coatings. Fast-track construction schedules exacerbate the problem when floor-surfacing material is installed before the concrete slab has dried to an acceptable level.

WHAT are the Sources of Concrete Slab Moisture ?

a. Ground water sources and when the floor slab is in contact with saturated ground, or if drainage is poor. Moisture moves to the slab surface by capillary action or wicking. Factors affecting this include depth of the water table and fineness of soil below the slab. Fine grained soil promotes moisture movements from considerable depths compared to coarser subgrade material.

b. Water vapor from damp soil will diffuse and condense on a concrete slab surface that is cooler and at a lower relative humidity due to a vapor pressure gradient.

c . Wetting of the fill course/blotter layer, if any, between the vapor retarder and the slab prior to placing the slab will trap moisture with the only possible escape route being through the slab. A blotter layer is not recommended for interior slabs on grade (CIP 29).

d. Residual moisture in the slab from the original concrete mixing water will move towards the surface. It may take anywhere from six weeks to one year or longer for a concrete slab to dry to an acceptable level under normal conditions.

Factors that affect the drying rate include the original water content of the concrete, type of curing, and the

relative humidity and temperature of the ambient air during the drying period. This is the only source of moisture in elevated slabs. Any wetting of the slab after final curing will elevate moisture levels within the slab and lengthen the drying period.

HOW do You Avoid Problems?

Avoiding problems associated with high moisture content in concrete can be accomplished by the following means:

• Protect against ingress of water under hydrostatic pressure by ensuring that proper drainage away from the slab is part of the design.

• Use a 6 to 8 inch [150 to 200 mm] layer of coarse gravel or crushed stone as a capillary break in locations with fine-grained soil subgrades.

• Use a vapor retarder membrane under the slab to prevent water from entering the slab. Ensure that the vapor retarder is installed correctly and not damaged during construction. Current recommendation of ACI Committee 302 is to place the concrete directly on a vapor retarder for interior slabs on grade (CIP 29).

• Use a concrete mixture with a moderately low water-cementitious material (w/cm) ratio (about 0.50). This reduces the amount of residual moisture in the slab, will require a shorter drying period, and result in a lower permeability to vapor transmission. Water reducing admixtures can be used to obtain adequate workability and maintain a low water content. The water tightness of concrete can be improved by using fly ash or slag in the concrete mixture.

• Curing is an important step in achieving excellent hardened concrete properties. However, moist curing will increase drying time. As a compromise, curing the concrete under plastic sheeting for 3 days is recommended and moist curing times greater than 7 days must be avoided. Avoid using curing compounds on floors where coverings or coatings will be installed.

• Allow sufficient time for the moisture in the slab to dry naturally while the floor is under a roof and protected from the elements. Avoid maintenance and cleaning operations that will wet the concrete floor. Use heat and dehumidifiers to accelerate drying. Since moisture transmission is affected by temperature and humidity, maintain the actual service conditions for a long enough period prior to installing the floor covering.

• Test the slab moisture condition prior to installing the floor covering. When concrete slab moisture cannot be controlled, consider using decorative concrete, less moisture-sensitive floor coverings, breathable floor coatings, or install moisture vapor suppression systems (topical coatings).

HOW is Concrete Slab Moisture Measured?

Various qualitative and quantitative methods of measuring concrete slab moisture are described in ASTM E 1907.

Test the moisture condition of the slab in the same temperature and humidity conditions as it will be in service.

In general, test at three random sample locations for areas up to 1000 sq. ft. [100 m2] and perform one additional test for each additional 1,000 sq ft. Ensure that the surface is dry and clean. Record the relative humidity and temperature at the time of testing. Some of the common tests are:

Polyethylene Sheet Test (ASTM D 4263)

– is a simple qualitative test, where an 18 by 18 inch [450 by 450 mm] square plastic sheet is taped tightly to the concrete and left in place for a at least 16 hours. The presence of moisture under the plastic sheet is a positive indication that excess moisture is likely present in the slab. However, a negative indication is not an assurance that the

slab is acceptably dry below the surface.

Mat Test

– where the adhesive intended for use is applied to a 24 by 24 inch [600 by 600 mm] area and a sheet vinyl flooring product is placed face down on the adhesive and sealed at the edges. A visual inspection of the condition of the adhesive is made after a 72-hour period. This test is no longer favored since it can produce false negative results.

Test Strip

– in which a test strip of the proposed primer or adhesive is evaluated for 24 hours to predict its behavior on the floor. This procedure is not very reliable.

Moisture meters

– Measure electrical resistance or impedance to indicate slab moisture. Electronic meters can be useful survey tools that provide comparative readings across a floor but should not be used to accept or reject a floor because they do not provide an absolute measure of moisture conditions within the slab.

Gravimetric

– This is a direct and accurate method of determining moisture content by weight in the concrete slab. Pieces of concrete are removed by chiseling or stitch-drilling and dried in an oven to constant weight. The moisture content is then calculated as a percentage of the dry sample weight. This is rarely recommended by floor covering manufacturers.

Nuclear Density and Radio Frequency

– This nondestructive test instrument is relatively expensive and can take a long time to properly correlate correction factors for each individual project. The instrument has a radioactive source and therefore requires licensed operators.

Anhydrous Calcium Chloride Test (ASTM F 1869)

– is specified by most floor covering manufacturers for pre installation testing. A measured amount of anhydrous calcium chloride is placed in a cup sealed under a plastic dome on the slab surface and the amount of moisture

absorbed by the salt in 60 to 72 hours is measured to calculate the moisture vapor emission rate (MVER).

Maximum limits of vapor transmission generally specified are 3 to 5 pounds of moisture per 1000 square feet per 24 hours. This test is relatively inexpensive, and yields a quantitative result. However, it has some major shortcomings: it determines only a portion of the free moisture at a shallow depth of concrete near the surface of the slab. The test is sensitive to the temperature and humidity in the building. It provides only a “snapshot in time” of current moisture conditions and does not predict if the sub-slab conditions will cause a moisture problem later in the life of the floor.

Relative Humidity Probe (ASTM F 2170)

This procedure involves measuring the relative humidity of concrete at a specific depth from the slab surface inside a

drilled or cast hole in a concrete slab. The relative humidity is measured after allowing 72 hours to achieve moisture equilibrium within the hole. Typically a relative humidity of 75% to 80% is targeted for installation of floor coverings. Relative humidity probes can determine the moisture profile from top to bottom in a slab, conditions below the slab,

and can monitor the drying of a slab over time, leading to predictions of future moisture conditions. These instruments have been used for many years in Europe and are becoming more popular in the

United States.

Lean Concrete vs Flowable Concrete

Lean concrete and flowable concrete are terms used to describe low-grade concrete slurry that is used in a variety of construction projects. In some ways the two terms are interchangeable, both describing concrete made with lesser ingredients, but there are some differences in how the two are used. Lean concrete tends to be more long-lasting than flowable concrete, which is often temporary.

Lean Concrete

Lean concrete is made with low cementitious material content. This means that it does not have many of the heavy, high-density rock and sand elements that normal concrete has. Instead, it can use a mixture of standard concrete materials, reclaimed and crushed concrete, discarded sand and recycled ash. This makes lean concrete very cheap in nature and simple to make and use.

Uses

Main function of the lean concrete is to provide the uniform surface to the foundation concrete and to prevent the direct contact of foundation concrete from the soil.
Lean concrete is used under the foundations.
It is good for providing a flat bottom in uneven or dirt terrain.
Lean concrete has a lower level of cement in it, which is why it’s mostly used for fillings or under the foundations, to keep it protected from the soil.
Lean concrete is used to provide a level surface , where main foundation (raft, isolated or any other type) can be placed.
Another purpose is protection of main foundation from soil below, as moisture or other chemicals in soil like sulphates may attack concrete and can weaken it.

Flowable Concrete

Flowable fill concrete is a self-compacting cementitious slurry consisting of a mixture of fine aggregate or filler, water, and cementitious material which is used as a fill or backfill in lieu of compacted-soil backfill. This mixture is capable of filling all voids in irregular excavations and hard to reach places (such as under undercuts of existing slabs), is self-leveling, and hardens in a matter of a few hours without the need for compaction in layers.

Flowable fill is sometimes referred to as controlled density fill (CDF), controlled low strength material (CLSM), lean concrete slurry, and unshrinkable fill.

Flowable fill materials will be used as only as a structural fill replacement on VA projects. Unless otherwise noted, flowable fill installed as a substitution for structural earth fill, shall not be designed to be removed by the use of hand tools.

The materials and mix design for the flowable fill should be designed to produce a comparable compressive strength to the surrounding soil after hardening, making excavation at a later time possible to produce the compressive strength indicated for the placed location, as determined by the Engineer.

Purposes

Like lean concrete, flowable concrete or flowable fill is used for sub-bases and subfooting as well as abandoned wells and cavities. But flowable concrete is more associated with backfill projects where the concrete will be removed in several months when projects are completed. Because it will be taken away, it may be made of cheaper and less durable materials than lean concrete.