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What is better steel or concrete?

Construction projects require many decisions. A key decision is to find the most effective option, as well as determining which process could produce ideal results.

Take a look at this breakdown. This example weighs the pros and cons of Structural Steel versus Concrete.

Costs

Structural Steel: A large majority of all steel manufactured today comes from recycled materials; A992 steel. This recycling usage makes the material much cheaper when compared to other materials. Although the price of steel can fluctuate, it typically remains a less expensive option compared to reinforced concrete.

Concrete: A large cost benefit to concrete is the fact that its price remains relatively consistent. On the other hand, concrete also requires ongoing maintenance and repairs, meaning added costs throughout its lifetime. Supply-and-demand may also impact the availability of concrete. Even though it can be poured and worked with directly onsite, the process to completion can be lengthy and could accrue higher labor costs.

Strength

Structural Steel: Structural steel is extremely strong, stiff, tough, and ductile; making it one of the leading materials used in commercial and industrial building construction.

Concrete: Concrete is a composite material consisting of cement, sand, gravel and water. It has a relatively high compressive strength, but lacks tensile strength. Concrete must be reinforced with steel rebar to increase a structure’s tensile capacity, ductility and elasticity.

Fire Resistance

Structural Steel: Steel is inherently a non-combustible material. However, when heated to extreme temperatures, it’s strength can be significantly compromised. Therefore, the IBC requires steel to be covered in additional fire resistant materials to improve safety.

Concrete: The composition of concrete makes it naturally fire resistant and in line with all International Building Codes (IBC). When concrete is used for building construction, many of the other components used in construction are not fire resistant. Professionals should adhere to all safety codes when in the building process to prevent complications within the overall structure.

Sustainability

Structural Steel: Structural steel is nearly 100% recyclable as well as 90% of all Structural Steel used today is created from recycled steel. Due to its long lifespan, steel can be used as well as adapted multiple times with little to no compromise to its structural integrity. When manufactured, fabricated and treated properly, structural steel will have a minimal impact on the environment.

Concrete: The elements within concrete are natural to our environment, reducing the harm to our world. Concrete may be crushed and used in future mixtures. This type of recycling can reduce a presence of concrete in landfills.

Versatility

Structural Steel: Steel is a flexible material that can be fabricated into a wide array of designs for endless applications. The strength-to-weight ratio of steel is much higher when compared to other affordable building materials. Steel also offers many different aesthetic options that different materials, such as concrete, cannot compete with.

Concrete: Although concrete can be molded into many different shapes, it does face some limitations when it comes to floor-to-floor construction heights and long, open spans.

Corrosion

Structural Steel: Steel may corrode when it comes into contact with water. If left without proper care, it could affect the safety and security of a structure. Professionals should care for the steel with such processes such as water-resistant seals and paint care. Fire-resistant features may be included when water-resisting seals are applied.

Concrete: With proper construction and care, reinforced concrete is water resistant and will not corrode. However, it’s important to note that the steel reinforcement inside should never be exposed. If exposed, the steel becomes compromised and can easily corrode, compromising the strength of the structure.

Reference : blog.swantonweld.com

Concrete calculator formula

What is concrete?

Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials.

Concrete is a composite materialmade from several readily available constituents(aggregates, sand, cement, water).

Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixedto meet a variety of special needs and formed to virtually any shape.

What you should know Before Estimating :

Density of Cement = 1440 kg/m3
Sand Density = 1450-1500 kg/m3
Density of Aggregate = 1450-1550 kg/m3

How many KG in 1 bag of cement = 50 kg
Cement quantity in litres in 1 bag of cement = 34.7 litres
1 Bag of cement in cubic metres = 0.0347 cubic meter
How many CFT (Cubic Feet) = 1.226 CFT
Numbers of Bags in 1 cubic metre cement = 28.8 Bags

Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
Grade of cement = 33, 43, 53
Where 33, 43, 53 compressive strength of cement in N/mm2

M-20 = 1 : 1.5 : 3 = 5.5, (Cement : Sand : Aggregate)
Some of Mix is – 5.5

Where, M = Mix
20 = Characteristic Compressive strength

Consider volume of concrete = 1m3

Dry Volume of Concrete = 1 x 1.54 = 1.54 m3 (For Dry Volume Multiply By 1.54)

Calculation for Cement, Sand and Aggregate quality in 1 cubic meter concrete:

CALCULATION FOR CEMENT QUANTITY

Cement= (1/5.5) x 1.54 = 0.28 m³∴ 1 is a part of cement, 5.5 is sum of ratio
Density of Cement is 1440/m³

= 0.28 x 1440 = 403.2 kg

We know each bag of cement is 50 kg
For Numbers of Bags = 403.2/50 = 8 Bags

We Know in one bag of cement = 1.226 CFT

For Calculate in CFT (Cubic Feet) = 8 x 1.225 = 9.8 Cubic Feet

CALCULATION FOR SAND QUANTITY

Consider volume of concrete = 1m³

Dry Volume of Concrete = 1 x 1.54 = 1.54 m³

Sand= (1.5/5.5) x 1.54 = 0.42 m³∴ 1.5 is a part of Sand, 5.5 is sum of ratio

Density of Sand is 1450/m³

For KG = 0.42 x 1450 = 609 kg

As we know that 1m³ = 35.31 CFT

For Calculation in Cubic Feet = 0.42 x 35.31 = 14.83 Cubic Feet

CALCULATION FOR AGGREGATE QUANTITY

Consider volume of concrete = 1m³

Dry Volume of Concrete = 1 x 1.54 = 1.54 m³

Aggregate = (3/5.5) x 1.54 = 0.84 m³∴ 3 is a part of cement, 5.5 is sum of ratio

Density of Aggregate is 1500/m³

Calculation for KG = 0.84 x 1500 = 1260 kg

As we know that 1 m3 = 35.31 CFT

Calculation for CFT = 0.84 x 35.31 = 29.66 Cubic Feet

Concrete Quality calculation sheet download

Calculation for Cement, Sand quality in mortar for Plaster:

Area of brick wall for plaster = 3m x 3m =9m²

Plaster Thickness = 12mm (Outer-20mm, Inner 12mm)

Volume of mortar = 9m² 0.012m = 0.108m³

Ratio for Plaster Taken is = 1 : 6

Sum of ratio is = 7

Calculation for Cement Volume

Dry Volume of Mortar = 0.108 1.35 = 0.1458 m³

Cement= (1/7) = 0.0208 m³

Density of Cement is 1440/m³

= 0 1440 = 29.99 kg

We know each bag of cement is 50 kg

= (29.99/50) = 0.599 Bags

Calculation for Sand Volume

Sand = (6/7) x 0.1458 = 0.124m³

Density of Sand is 1450/m³

= 0 1450 = 181.2 kg

Now we find how many CFT (Cubic feet) Required

As we know that 1m³ = 35.31 CFT

= 0.124*35.31

= 4.37 CFT (Cubic Feet)

Plaster calculation sheet download

Reference : tutorialstipscivil.com

WHAT YOU MUST KNOW BEFORE BUYING A 3D LASER SCANNER

In emergent tech sectors it’s common to find start-up companies which are not in command of the core skills required to do their work.

That’s certainly true in the scanning sector.

Like many new industries the sector infrastructure barely exists and for customers, finding a credible service provider can be challenging.

New sectors are like Wild West towns in the 1870s – there may or may not be a sheriff, a marshal, or a judge, and they may or may not have a grip on local law enforcement; they may or may not be well-versed in the law and they’re operating a long way from established civil society.

For customers, it can be a bit of nightmare, so here are a few of the things to look out for.

1. Tech manufacturers need to sell their tech and software, and their key messages often emphasise ease of use and application. Most tech-competent people can get up and running at an extremely basic level, but not with the performance requirements of a company offering professional services for a fee.

It’s only easy to use if you already have high-level intuitive tech skills (we have in-house tech staff who have developed our own training and operational hubs and can do everything, including adapting software and writing code)!

2. There are no generic, industry-wide, approved training courses. Manufacturers (Leica, Z+F, Faro etc) operate differently, manufacture different types of equipment, generating different outputs. Inexperienced companies get confused by this and overwhelmed by the need to learn different systems.

3. People are learning scanning in all sorts of ways – from YouTube and other online sources, and by trial and error (we train scanning operators and those doing post-production in-house, and we’re developing clear training protocols).

4. There’s a divide in the industry, between tech-led firms that have little understanding of BIM / FM / construction / design and build / project management etc; and firms led by people who have all these skills, but whose tech skills are deficient (we have employees with extensive skills and experience in both areas).

5. The entry level costs are peanuts by the standards of many industries; but for the individual sole-trader start-up entrepreneurs who so often pioneer new markets, they’re horrendous! No qualifications are required and most customers have little experience of the tech and haven’t yet acquired the skills to differentiate between a credible and non-credible offer.

Capital apart, the barriers to entry are, therefore, low, and many of the bottom-feeders are people with low-level business skills. (We have a successful, profitable, 17-year old company with great credit references and access to capital).

6. If you’re an individual sole-trader entrepreneurbuying all the equipment and software you need to run a scanning company, you’ll need a fair number of customers – very quickly – to pay-back your start-up costs, so you need to have the skills to grow a business to scale fast.

Why fast? Because the tech is developing so fast that within months / a year or so you’ll need to invest heavily again, to keep pace – and you can’t do that if you haven’t paid-down your initial investment or you can’t raise the capital (we were doing scanning projects across France, Germany and UK within weeks of starting our own operation; we have access to capital, we have a healthy income stream, and we invested in our second generation of technology before even launching a dedicated scanning company).

7. New entrants sometimes fail to realise that one day of scanning could require multiple days of post-production in order to produce something that is useable by most clients.

If you don’t do that, you’ll give the client an output which is clunky, data-heavy, difficult to use and awkward. They won’t get the most out of it, they won’t use it, they’ll consider the money wasted, and they won’t come back for a second bite (we have skilled in-house staff who can process scanned data quickly and make it very easy for customers to use).

8. The software that ‘comes in the box’ with a scanner isn’t sufficient for a professional operation. You need to apply other software, and probably adapt or write software for your specific requirements.

Writing code is simply beyond many of the people who go in to the business (Xmo Strata has always been an IT-literate company and we have introduced numerous IT-led customer solutions; writing code is second nature to our IT staff).

9. Scanning is essentially a professional services operation. Some of the companies in the field simply don’t have the customer-facing communications skills required; their founders have come out of corporates who are used to being on the ‘client’ side of the table and the cultural shift is beyond them (we have run a professional Business-To-Business service company for 17 years).

10. The initial cost of a basic scanner and everything you need to set-up is below six figures, if you do it on the cheap. But some of those in the sector have no experience of running an SME (Small to Medium Sized Enterprise) and think that they can set-up for the cost of the equipment alone.

Undercapitalised companies don’t last very long. If they haven’t provided customers with useable outputs (which is frequently the case) all the work disappears when they go out of business (we have extensive business experience covering not only our own companies but major brands).

The truth is that providing 3D digital scanning and digital modelling as a professional service is not for amateurs; but a generation of amateurs may have to come, and go, along with their customers’ money and much of the work customers have paid for, before that lesson is properly understood.

By Steve Martin, Managing Director, Xmo Strata and ManagingDirector, SpectisGB

THE 10 KEYS THAT DETERMINE HOW LONG A (3D) LASER SCAN TAKES!

How long does it take to do a scan and provide a client with the output they want?

Like so many services … it depends.

A room that is a simple box can be scanned and processed quickly and easily, but room (of the same size or volume) that is not a simple box, and which contains internal walls and pillars, permanent fixtures and fittings, equipment etc may take longer.

Complexity takes time (but is often the reason why scanning is so important).

Here are some of the things that will affect the timing:

1. The size of the area to be scanned.

2. The shape and dimensions of the architecture / interior design / equipment being scanned.

3. Whether a building has to be scanned both inside and out.

4. Are colour scans required – or is black and white sufficient?

5. The number of floors, rooms, corridors, staircases and internal spaces.

6. Whether the roof has to be scanned; how that will be done; and whether the roof is a simple shape or a complex one.

7. Whether ceiling voids have to be scanned, and whether they can be scanned from a single location (internal ‘shaped’ ceilings, around dormer windows or with recesses, may require additional locations).

8. The number of different scan locations the technician has to use in order to cover the requirement.

9. The precise output required.

10. The distance between locations, if there is more than one.

Remember that the scanning is only one part of the operation.

In order to make the scans useable for a client, post-production work is required – and again, how long that takes will depend on the variables of the project (perhaps as little as a day or so, perhaps as much as five days for every day of scanning).

Your service provider will be able to give more information once they have a full brief.

By Steve Martin, Managing Director, Xmo Strata and ManagingDirector, SpectisGB

BRIDGE REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

1. Introduction

Modern bridge infrastructure comprises of primarily concrete (reinforced or pre-stressed) and steel structures. Over the service life of a bridge, its constituent materials are continually subjected to fatigue and wear-tear due to dynamic vehicular loads. Overloading due to increase in wheel loads and regular exposure to aggressive external environment may aggravate the situation further.

Post-tensioned concrete bridges may also exhibit loss in pre-stress overtime, resulting in drop in load carrying capacities of the affected members. Poor quality of construction and lack of regular maintenance could potentially lead to major retrofit in a bridge structure. Furthermore, components facilitating expansion/ contraction of bridge and load transfer to the sub-structure, such as expansion joints & bearings, may also require rehabilitation or replacement over time.

Defects in the constituent materials may be manifested in the form of cracking – spalling of concrete, excessive deflection of structure, corrosion of steel components/ reinforcement etc. It is evident that rehabilitation of bridges involves addressing a myriad of problems and no single technique or retrofit method could offer a complete solution. Therefore, answer lies in being able to address each individual problem with an appropriate technique to result in a durable retrofit. This article aims at providing an overview of a variety of structural retrofit techniques available to rehabilitate bridges.

2. Reinforced / Pre-stressed Concrete Bridges

Most of the structural repair and retrofitting techniques used for ordinary reinforced concrete are applicable to reinforced concrete bridges as well. Structural repair techniques include crack injection with low viscosity epoxy and patch repair using an approved material such as polymer modified mortar or non-shrink grout. Strengthening techniques include concrete jacketing, steel plate or FRP (fibre reinforced polymer) bonding on the external surface of the member to be retrofitted.

For strengthening of pre-stressed concrete structures, external post-tensioning or FRP retrofit may be appropriate.

Concrete jacketing

Involves increasing size of the existing reinforced concrete section by adding more reinforcement and concrete. It could be accomplished by either of the following methods:

1. Conventional Concrete – Pouring concrete around the member to be strengthened with additional steel reinforcement properly anchored to the existing section. Ordinary concrete jacketing requires formwork and is time consuming due to long curing time. Furthermore, it is difficult to achieve a dense mix in constrained conditions. Adhesion is also an issue, especially for overhead applications.

2. Sprayed Concrete (Shotcrete) – Pneumatically projecting concrete on to the reinforced (usually with wire mesh) and prepared surface of the member being strengthened with a spray gun. A variety of additives and admixtures are also introduced to expedite strength gain, reduce rebound, reduce water requirement, curb shrinkage and improve adhesion.

The grading of aggregates is critical in sprayed concrete due to the absence of external vibration and the reduction in the quantity of coarse aggregates as a result of rebound. Shotcrete does not require formwork and is useful to retrofit large areas in a relatively short period of time. But, the operation is very messy with enormous loss of sprayed materials, resulting not only wastage of materials but an unsightly-rough surface finish too. It is not economical for small areas of retrofit due to high setup and machinery costs.

3. Pre-Packed Aggregate Grouting – Pumping of cementitious grout into washed/ graded coarse aggregates placed with properly anchored reinforcement around the member to be strengthened in a tightly sealed formwork. It is one of the better ways of jacketing a concrete member as it results in a dense mix with good surface finish.

Regardless of the method deployed, jacketing results in increase in dimensions as well as dead weight of the retrofitted member.

Steel Plate Bonding

This technique involves enhancing strength (shear, flexure, compression) or improving stiffness of deficient reinforced concrete members by bonding steel plates of calculated thickness with adhesives and anchors to the existing sections.

Steel plate not only acts as externally bonded reinforcement to the concrete section but it also improves the moment of inertia (stiffness) of the composite (concrete-steel) section. This technique is useful for the flexural and shear strengthening of bending elements such as beams and slabs and for compression capacity enhancement of columns.

Steel plate bonding is a cumbersome process requiring extensive hacking & drilling in the existing section. Steel plates are hard to lift and need to be tailor made to suit to the as-built dimensions of the members. Resulting surface finish is unsightly and steel plate retrofit is prone to corrosion over time.

FRP Strengthening

A Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) typically consists of high tensile continuous fibres oriented in a desired direction in a speciality resin matrix. These continuous fibres are bonded to the external surface of the member to be strengthened in the direction of tensile force or as confining reinforcement normal to its axis. FRP can enhance shear, flexural, compression capacity and ductility of the deficient member.

Aramid, carbon, and glass fibres are the most common types of fibres used in the majority of commercially available FRPs. FRP systems, commonly used for structural applications, come in many forms including wet lay-up (fibre sheets or fabrics saturated at site), pre-preg (pre-impregnated fibre sheets of fabrics off site) and pre-cured (composite sheets and shapes manufactured off-site).

The properties of an FRP system shall be characterized as a composite, recognizing not just the material properties of the individual fibres, but also the efficiency of the fibre-resin system and fabric architecture.

FRP strengthening is a quick, neat, effective, and aesthetically pleasing technique to rehabilitate reinforced and pre-stressed concrete structures. Unlike steel plates, FRP systems possess high strength to self-weight ratio and do not corrode. But, it is imperative to be aware of the performance characteristics of various FRP systems under different circumstances to select a durable and suitable system for a particular application.

It should be ensured that the FRP system selected for structural strengthening has undergone durability testing consistent with the application environment and structural testing in accordance with the anticipated service conditions. Suitably designed protective coatings may also be applied on an FRP system to protect it from exposure to adverse environmental conditions (acids, saltwater, UV exposure, impact, temperature, fire etc.).

External Post-Tensioning

Over the service life of a pre-stressed concrete member, loss in pres-stress may occur due to a variety of reasons. Post-tensioned bridges can be effectively rehabilitated by external post-tensioning technique to compensate for loss in pre-stress or increase in wheel loads.

In this technique, pre-stressing tendons or bars are located according to pre-determined profile on the external surface of the member to be strengthened according to design. Anchor heads are positioned at the ends of these tendons/ bars to post-tension the member using hydraulic jacks.

Although, this method is quite effective but it requires sufficient strength in the existing concrete to transfer the stress and exposed tendons & anchorages need to be protected against corrosion and vandalism.

3. Steel/ Composite Bridges

Components of a steel bridge need to be continually protected against environmental corrosion. Proper care needs to be exercised to maintain critical elements such as piles, piers, decks, suspension cables etc.

Piles and piers may be rehabilitated using bonded steel plates or FRP strengthening/ protection. Steel bridges are generally covered with a concrete decking, which gets worn off over time due to cyclic dynamic loads. It is a time consuming and cumbersome process to retrofit reinforced concrete decks with conventional methods. The following techniques are useful to rehabilitate a steel bridge deck:

Bridge Deck Replacement

Exodermic™Bridge Deck (www.dsbrown.com) is a modular deck replacement system consisting of a reinforced concrete slab composite with an unfilled steel grid. This arrangement maximizes the use of the compressive strength of concrete and the tensile strength of steel. Top portions of the main bars of the steel grid are specially designed with perforations that get embedded into the concrete to effectively transfer horizontal shear. The concrete component can be precast before the panels are installed on the bridge, or cast-in-place.

Overall thickness of the system ranges between 150mm and 250mm. The system is designed to speed up the construction process while reducing the dead load. A typical application weighs 35 to 50 percent less than a reinforced concrete deck that would be specified for the same span. It not only helps reduce dead load on the sub-structure but also enables bridge structure to sustain higher live loads.

The panelized nature of the Exodermic™ design is well suited for rapid, even overnight, redecking projects.

Bridge Cable Protection

Cableguard™ Elastomeric Wrap system (www.dsbrown.com) is a corrosion protection system exclusively developed to protect bridge cables, applicable during construction or rehabilitation of cable-stayed and suspension bridges.

The patented wrap material is based on cross-linking a chlorosulfonated polyethylene polymer that is manufactured into a three ply (polymer-fabric reinforcement-polymer) laminated construction. It comes in a wide variety of colours and hence, does not require painting.

Cableguard™ Elastomeric wrap is applied directly over existing cable coating using a Skewmaster™ automatic wrapping device to encapsulate the entire cable. Wrap is heated to fuse its overlapped portion and shrink it snuggly to the cable surface to result in an impermeable barrier against intrusion of moisture into the cable.

Although, the Cableguard™ wrap shrinks securely on the cable, it does not fuse or bond to the cable. Therefore, partial removal for inspection of the internal strands is not impaired. Application does not require sandblasting, high-pressure washing or any type of solvent cleaning, eliminating need for containment and disposal of hazardous materials.

Cableguard™ Elastomeric Wrap system presents a watertight sealing mechanism to protect bridge cables from corrosion and premature failure.

4. Rehabilitation of Expansion Joints and Bearings

Expansion Joints

Bridge expansion joints allow movement (expansion and contraction) resulting from temperature changes, shrinkage and creep etc. in the bridge structure, while maintaining its watertight integrity. Like bridge deck, they are continually subjected to dynamic vehicular wheel loads, wear & tear, and fatigue during their service lives.

Depending upon their movement capacities and make, expansion joints may fall into the categories of bituminous, rubberized or mechanical joints. They may also be categorized as bolted-down or positively anchored on the basis of their mode of anchorage with the bridge deck.

Generally, rubberized and finger bolt-down joints tend to loosen over time with the application of wheel loads. Upon loosening, dynamic forces are accentuated further that hamper proper functioning of the system as well as riding quality.

Sealing elements may also get damaged overtime due to wear and tear. Large movement joints such as modular expansion joint assemblies may also require replacement of their elastomeric components during their service lives.

Rehabilitation of bridge expansion joints poses the challenge of replacing the components or complete joint without disrupting traffic flow.

Generally, replacement is carried out lane by lane during off-peak hours to allow the traffic flow while work is underway. To accomplish, replacement of expansion joint with in a short period of time, it is important that the system proposed meets the following criteria:

1. Joint can be installed in a shallow box-out to limit cutting & hacking

2. Joint can be installed lane by lane

3. Nosing material is elastic and bonds well with the deck concrete and expansion joint mechanical elements

4. Nosing material sets quickly (less than an hour or so) without special curing requirements

5. System provides a water-tight integrity Delcrete™ Strip Seal Expansion joint systems (www.dsbrowm.com) meet all above-mentioned criteria and present an ideal solution to rehabilitate bridge expansion joints. Delcrete™ is a pour- in-place, free flowing, two-part polyurethane-based elastomeric concrete.

It has been compounded to bond to a variety of surfaces including steel and concrete. It is non-brittle over extreme temperature ranges, resistant to nearly all chemicals and has one-hour cure time.

Bridge Bearings

Bridge bearings primarily carry out the following functions:

1. Create a desired support system for the bridge superstructure

2. Transfer loads from the super-structure to the sub-structure

3. Allow movement and rotation of the superstructure Like expansion joints, bridge bearings also come in various types, makes and materials.

They fall into two broad categories of elastomeric and mechanical bearings. Elastomeric bearings are generally composed of neoprene or natural rubber, with or without steel plate reinforcement.

Mechanical bearings may be categorized into mechanical pot, roller, rocker, knuckle, or disc bearings. Defects in elastomeric bearings may be manifested in the form of cracking or tearing of elastomeric material, slip of steel reinforcing layer or the bearing itself, excessive shear movement in the bearing etc.

Mechanical bearings may also exhibit signs of distress during their service lives in the form of excessive movement/ rotation, bearing failure at sub-structure or super-structure, dislodging of components such as sliding surfaces/ materials, failure of anchorage systems etc. In most of these situations, it is advisable to replace the complete bearing assembly with a new one.

Therefore, provisions must be made at the design stage itself to ensure easy replaceability of structural bearings at a future date. To replace existing bridge bearing, it is necessary to make alternative arrangements for load transfer from the superstructure to the sub-structure during the duration of replacement.

Normally, hydraulic jacks are used to lift the bridge superstructure for replacement of the affected bearing. If the bridge sub-structure has sufficient space in the vicinity of the bearing to be replaced, then the hydraulic jacks can be placed on the substructure itself, otherwise supporting frame is erected from ground or friction gripped to the bridge pier to support the jacking arrangement. Bearing replacement exercise involves careful consideration of bearing pressures, effective load transfer mechanisms, ensuring balanced-gradual lifting and stability of superstructure, and speed of replacement.

What is RIBA plan of work?

The RIBA Plan of Work is published by the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). The latest version is also is endorsed by the Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists, the Construction Industry Council, the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland, the Royal Society of Architects in Wales and the Royal Society of Ulster Architects.

It was originally launched in 1963 as a fold out sheet that illustrated the roles of participants in design and construction in a simple matrix format. The first detailed plan of work was published in 1964 (ref. Introduction, RIBA Plan of Work 2007).

Split into a number of key project stages, the RIBA Plan of Work provides a shared framework for design and construction that offers both a process map and a management tool. Whilst it has never been clear that architects actually follow the detail of the plan in their day to day activities, the work stages have been used as a means of designating stage payments and identifying team members responsibilities when assessing insurance liabilities, and they commonly appear in contracts and appointment documents.

The Plan of Work has evolved through its history to reflect the increasing complexity of projects, to incorporate increasing and changing regulatory requirements and to reflect the demands of industry and government reports criticising the industry. It has moved from a simple matrix representing just the traditional procurement route, to include multiple procurement routes, more diverse roles, multi-disciplinary teams, government gateways and to add stages before and after design and construction. It is supported by other RIBA publications such as the RIBA Job Book.

The Plan of Work has been criticised for being too architect focused, for missing many of the client tasks undertaken at the beginning of a project, and for condensing construction into a single stage.

The latest version, published in 2013, has moved online and has undergone a radical overhaul. It is now more flexible, with stages such as planning permission and procurement being moveable, it reflects increasing requirements for sustainability and Building Information Modelling (BIM) and it allows simple, project-specific plans to be created. In addition, the work stages have been re-structured and re-named.:

0 – Strategic definition.
1 – Preparation and brief.
2 – Concept design.
3 – Developed design.
4 – Technical design.
5 – Construction.
6 – Handover and close out.
7 – In use.

There is also a BIM overlay and a sustainability overlay for the plan, but these do not seem to have been updated to reflect the 2013 work stage definitions.

The 2013 Plan of Work has come under some criticism as it is significantly less detailed than the previous 2007 edition, its flexibility and customisability is very limited and the definition and naming of work stages does not reflect the terminology that is used by the industry.

How can floor vibrations be assessed?

Improvements in vibration performance after construction are likely to be difficult to achieve and very costly. The assessment of vibrations should therefore be carried out as part of the serviceability checks on the floor during the design process.

The vibration performance of the floor can be assessed using manual methods, a new simplified web-based tool or finite element methods. Where a BIM model of the building is being created by the design team, the model should contain all the necessary information required to carry out the analysis.

Manual methods

Simplified assessment can be carried out by hand methods of analysis, although such calculations are generally conservative and in some cases to a great extent. Various methods are available, one of which is set out in SCI publication P354.

To avoid the possibility that walking activities could cause resonance or near-resonant excitation of the fundamental mode of vibration of the floor, neither the floor structure as a whole nor any single element within it should have a fundamental frequency of less than 3 Hz.

The assessment procedure involves the following steps:

• calculate the natural frequency of the floor system;

• determine the modal mass, i.e. the mass participating in the vibration;

• calculate the critical rms acceleration and the response factor;

• compare the response factor with the acceptance criteria for continuous vibration.

If the response factor is not acceptable, try a more comprehensive method of analysis such as the new simplified web-based tool or finite element modelling.

Simplified web-based tool

A new Floor Response Calculator is available on www.steelconstruction.info that allows designers to make an immediate assessment of the dynamic response of a floor solution. The results from this tool provide an improved prediction of the dynamic response compared to the ‘manual method’ in SCI P354. The tool may be used to examine complete floor plans or part floor plans, comparing alternative beam arrangements.

The tool reports the results of approximately 19,000 arrangements of floor grid, loading and bay size, which have been investigated using finite element analysis. The designer must select between a variable action of 2.5 kN/m2 and 5 kN/m2, being typical imposed loads on floors. 0.8 kN/m2 is added to allow for partitions.

The designer must also select the arrangement of secondary and primary beams, with typical spans, which depend on the arrangement of the beams. Secondary beams may be placed at mid-span or third points. The pre-set damping ratio of 3% is recommended for furnished floors in normal use.

When a decking profile is selected, an appropriate range of slab depths are then available to be selected. Generally, thicker slabs will produce a lower response factor. When selecting the slab depth, solutions which result in a response factor higher than 8 (the limit for a typical office) are highlighted.

The primary and secondary beams are selected automatically as the lightest sections which satisfy strength and deflection requirements; these cannot be changed by the user.

The selection of the lightest sections is made to produce the most conservative dynamic response, as stiffer beams will reduce the response. A visual plot of the response is also provided for both the steady state and transient response.

Hovering over the plot shows the response factor. Generally the higher response will be in an end bay, where there is no continuity. The fundamental frequency of the floor is presented on the output screen. If the actual design differs from the pre-set solutions in the tool, users should note the following:

• Using stiffer beams will reduce the response

• Using thicker slabs, and stiffer beams, will reduce the response

• The gauge of the decking has no significant impact on the response factor

• Voids that break the continuity of beam lines will lead to higher response factors

Finite element analysis

The most accurate and detailed assessments of floor vibrations are made using finite element (FE) analysis. Simple methods can be applied with reasonable accuracy for orthogonal grids but where a floor plate is not orthogonal (e.g. curved in plan), simple methods are inadequate.

In FE analysis the floor slab, beams, columns, core walls and perimeter cladding are modelled with finite elements with appropriate restraints applied to the elements in the model.

A model of the whole building is often already available for Building Information Modelling (BIM) and an individual floor can be extracted and modified to provide a model that is suitable for vibration analysis.A modal analysis is carried out first to determine the natural frequencies, mode shapes and modal masses.

Steady state and transient responses are then calculated for each mode of vibration and each harmonic of the forcing function (the walking activity). The modal responses are then added up for all the mode shapes and harmonics considered, and a predicted rms acceleration calculated for each point on the floor.

The final step is to divide the acceleration by the base value to determine the response factor. The results can be plotted in a contour plot.

Mitigation

If the floor response is found to be unacceptable during the design assessment, the designer has some freedom to make adjustments to the structural arrangement such that the vibration response is reduced to acceptable levels.

Possible measures include increasing the mass, stiffness and damping of the floor, and relocating or reducing the length of corridors

What are floor vibrations and why are they important?

The term ‘vibrations’ when applied to floors refers to the oscillatory motion experienced by the building and its occupants during the course of normal day-to-day activities.

This motion is normally vertical (up and down), but horizontal vibrations are also possible. In either case, the consequences of vibrations range from being a nuisance to the building users to causing damage to the fixtures and fittings or even (in very extreme cases) to the building structure.

The severity of the consequences will depend on the source of the motion, its duration and the design and layout of the building.Floor vibrations are generally caused by dynamic loads applied either directly to the floor by people or machinery. The most common source of vibration that can cause nuisance in building applications is human activity, usually walking.

Although small in magnitude, walking-induced vibrations can cause a nuisance to people working or living in the building, especially to the use of sensitive equipment or to those engaged in motion-sensitive activities, e.g. surgery.

Naturally, the problem is more acute for more vigorous types of human activity such as dancing and jumping and therefore designers of buildings featuring a gymnasium or dance studio should take extra care to limit the vibrations in the rest of the building.Machinery-induced vibrations are best dealt with at source through the provision of isolating mounts or motion arresting pads.

Machines installed in factories tend to produce the most severe vibrations due to their size and the nature of their operation. However, floor vibration is rarely a problem in most factories, since it is accepted by the workforce as part of the industrial environment.

Once constructed, it is very difficult to modify an existing floor to reduce its susceptibility to vibration, as only major changes to the mass, stiffness or damping of the floor system will produce any perceptible reduction in vibration amplitudes.

It is important therefore that the levels of acceptable vibration be established at the concept design stage, paying particular attention to the anticipated usage of the floors. The client must be involved in this decision, as the specified acceptance criteria may have a significant impact on the design of the floor and the cost of construction.

Top 10 Fastest Trains in the World

Traveling Europe by train is already faster than by plane right now, and Japan is testing a “Supreme” version of its popular high-speed trains, set for a 2020 debut ahead of the next Winter Olympics. You can’t ride that one just yet, but there are more than a few bullet trains available to speed up your travels. Here are the world’s fastest high-speed trains in commercial service, ranked by speed:

1. Shanghai Maglev: 267 mph

The world’s fastest train isn’t the newest, the shiniest, or even the one with the most expensive tickets. Charging $8 per person, per ride, the Maglev runs the nearly 19 miles from Shanghai’s Pudong International Airport to the Longyang metro station on the outskirts of Shanghai. That’s right—the train, which takes just over 7 minutes to complete the journey using magnetic levitation (maglev) technology, doesn’t go to the city center. As such, the bulk of the passengers since its 2004 debut have been travelers on their way to and from the airport, cameras out and ready to snap a photo of the speed indicators when the train hits 431 km/hr (267 mph).

2. Fuxing Hao CR400AF/BF: 249 mph

China wins again, also serving as home to the world’s fastest non-maglev train currently in service. The name “Fuxing Hao” translates to mean “rejuvenation,” and each of the two trains have been branded with nicknames: CR400AF is “Dolphin Blue,” and the CR400BF is “Golden Phoenix.” The “CR” stands for China Railway. Both take just under five hours to zip up to 556 passengers each between Beijing South and Shanghai Hongqiao Station, easily halving the nearly 10-hour time it takes to ride the conventional, parallel rail line between these two megalopolises. The “Rejuvenation” also beats China’s next fastest train, the “Harmony” CRH380A; it has dazzled since 2010, with speeds of up to 236 mph on routes connecting Shanghai with Nanjing and Hangzhou, and Wuhan with Guangzhou.

3. Shinkansen H5 and E5: 224 mph

Japan is celebrating the 54th anniversary of high-speed train travel this year, since it was way back in 1964 that the Hikari high-speed train launched service between Tokyo and Osaka, cutting travel time between the country’s two largest cities from nearly seven hours to a mere four by rail. The H5 and E5 series Shinkansen, respectively running the Tohoku and Hokkaido services, are two of the newer bullet trains on Japan’s tracks, and so far the fastest in regular commercial service in the country.

4. The Italo and Frecciarossa: 220 mph

Italy’s dueling train operators, NTV and Trenitalia, each flaunt a high-speed train that tie as Europe’s fastest, capable of shuttling passengers from Milan to Florence or Rome in under three hours, with a new route to Perugia debuting this year. The Frecciarossa, or “red arrow,” was unveiled during Expo 2015, held in Milan, and the train is remarkable as much for its speed as for its construction; its components are nearly 100 percent renewable and sustainable.

5. Renfe AVE: 217 mph

Spain’s fastest train is the Velaro E by Siemens, and it is used for long-distance services to major Spanish cities and beyond: traveling from Barcelona to Paris can now be accomplished on high-speed rail in six hours.

The DeutscheBahn ICE reaches speeds of 205 mph.Courtesy Deutsche Ban

6. Haramain Western Railway: 217 mph

The Mecca-Medina high-speed link stretches the 281 miles between Saudi Arabia’s most holy cities and has been in partial operation since December 2017, with full completion set for early summer 2018. Traveling the length of the route takes two and a half hours, compared to five hours by car. Speed isn’t the entire justification for the construction of this railway, however; the Haramain is expected to carry three million passengers a year, including many Hajj and Umrah pilgrims, relieving traffic congestion.

7. DeutscheBahn ICE: 205 mph

The distinctively futuristic white and silver of the Inter-City Express, or ICE, combined with its sharp red cheatline, makes an impressive sight speeding through scenic German countryside, especially on its newest route connecting Berlin and Munich. Similar to Spain’s Renfe AVE train, Germany’s fastest train is another Siemens design, the Velaro, and was built to fit through the Channel Tunnel. That’s a serious asset for DeutscheBahn’s long-term plans to operate these trains from Frankfurt to London.

8. Korail KTX: 205 mph

South Korea’s high-speed rail network is far from the newest (the KTX debuted in 2004), but it does hold its rank among the fastest. The latest route, opened just in time for the 2018 Winter Olympics, connects Incheon International Airport in the west to the coastal town of Gangneung in the east, stopping in Seoul along the way. The KTX cuts the transport time to reach the ski slopes of PyeongChang from six hours by conventional train to under two hours.

9. Eurostar e320 and TGV: 200 mph

Both the TGV and Eurostar e320 trains are tied for next on the list, but the latter underwent a redesign in 2015. Named for its top speed of 320 km/hr (200 mph), the e320 series is the first tip-to-tail redesign of a Eurostar train in the company’s 22-year history. The speedier trains—20 km/hr faster than the earlier, e300 series—are capable of trimming another 15 minutes off the already zippy Eurostar trips of around two hours between Brussels, Paris, and London (and Amsterdam, later this year). Since Eurostar delivers its passengers right to the center of each city and fares are available with Rail Europe from $70 one-way, it’s a wonder anyone still flies between the cities.

10. Thalys: 186 mph

Connecting Amsterdam, Brussels, Paris, and Cologne with multiple daily services, the Thalys is one of Europe’s most important train lines for both leisure and business travelers; in fact, its ridership is almost an even split between the two categories. In December 2015 the German route was extended as far as Dortmund, though the Brussels-to-Paris run remains critical, making up more than half the business.

The Benefits of Understanding your Track Geometry Measurements

The Goal

The overall goal of track maintenance is to deliver the track, to support the timetable. This is achieved by Rail and Transit owner-operators through four objectives. First, to deliver safety to all passengers and staff, safety for passengers who depend on the rail system. Second, to deliver a reliable rail system, to ensure that the required services are available and that all assets are fit for purpose. Third, to deliver economic prosperity for a rail organization, through optimal and sustainable maintenance activities; and lastly, to deliver a comfortable ride for the consumer, reducing noise and improving ride quality. To deliver these goals, a rail organization must understand the criticality of all their assets, and the condition, along with the quality of the track they own and operate on.

Linear Measurements

Track Geometry measurements are a key component to understanding if the track is fit for purpose and is in a state of good repair. Periodic track condition measurements are required to evaluate the track quality and maintain an effective railway track system. Today most railroads already collect track geometry measurements from recording vehicles; however, often rail operators are not utilizing the data to its full advantage and sometimes data sets are held in siloed systems; making it almost impossible to visualize different condition data at the same time. Track Geometry contains a wealth of information that can support a range of maintenance and renewal decision support.

Core Track Geometry Measurements and Calculations

Gauge; the distance between the running edge of the left and right rail. There are several gauges used globally, the standard gauge is 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) and is typically used in North America and most of Europe. As the linear asset degrades, the distance between the rails will increase. This deterioration can cause a train to derail.

Curvature; one way to survey a track alignment is to measure the offsets from a chord to the running edge of the rail at the centres of successive overlapping chords, laid out along the outer rail of the surveyed track, this offset is called a versine.

Superelevation; is a difference in height between the left and right rails. It is generally applied in curves, with the low rail being on the inside edge of the curve. It is applied to offset the lateral forces that are felt when a vehicle traverses a curve.

Vertical Track Variation; a challenge for some individuals to understand is that the underlying geometry is not important; for example, a hill or a valley was already designed into the system. However, if there is a bump or a dip in the track on a hill, that is the information that is needed for extraction. The hill is viewed as a zero, we want to pay attention to the oscillations or variations in the track geometry data. As a general rule, if it takes less than two seconds to go through the variation at line speed, then we consider the variation; and if it takes more than two seconds, then we don’t consider the variation.

Lateral Track Variation; horizontal track geometry is generally filtered in the same way as vertical track geometry. We are looking for features that can be traversed in less than two seconds at line speed. The two seconds is derived from ISO 2632 – Human Comfort.

Track Twist; the difference in cross-level between two points or the rate of change of superelevation and measured over the impact on the bogie; this should be calculated based on the smallest wheelbase used by the owner-operator. A worst-case scenario is that the front wheel would drop onto a twist causing the rear wheel to climb, resulting in a train derailment.

Core Channels from a Track Geometry System

Location; beyond recording what the track geometry is, the system needs to record where it is as well. This is often one of the main issues with geometry data, as the same feature can be recorded at slightly different locations on different recording runs. Distance measured along the track can be derived from a tachometer fitted to one of the axles. This is a reasonably effective mechanism, but errors can be introduced as the wheel wears and if the recording vehicle runs around curves at different speeds. This can be corrected by GPS where available, or by detecting known features along the network and marking them against the recording. Lastly, the location should be reported against the linear referencing system (LRS) for the track, not against the distance traveled by the recording vehicle.

Speed; the FRA defines the maximum allowable posted timetable operating speed using the Vmax formula. We can take our curve data and plot the max speeds on our track charts. Additionally, we can calculate the equilibrium speed, which is the minimum speed that should be traveled through a curve. If locomotive traverses through the curve above Vmax speed, this causes extra wear on the outside rail; and if the locomotive traverses through the curve below the equilibrium speed, then this causes extra wear on the inside rail. This can be tracked and shown in our track charts with real locomotive speed data, to ensure operators are traversing through curves at the appropriate speed.

By Robert Henderson – Rail and Transit Consultant at Bentley Systems