Europe’s Longest Bridge Spans Troubled Waters

Earlier this month, Russian President Vladimir Putin got behind the wheel of a bright orange dump truck and led a convoy across the Crimea Bridge, a new bridge that links Russia to the Crimean Peninsula. The bridge, which stretches12 miles across the Kerch Strait, is now Europe’s longest bridge.

But media coverage of the bridge hasn’t focused on its length, or any of its physical properties. That’s because the new bridge connects Russia to territory it annexed from the Ukraine in 2014—an action Western governments have called illegal. To many observers, especially those in the Ukraine, the bridge was a political power move, designed to seal Russia’s hold on the region.

While the politics of the bridge are complicated, its engineering is fascinating. A bridge across the Kerch Strait has been under consideration for more than a century, but has been blocked by brutal geological and environmental conditions. Experts in the area aren’t sure how long the bridge will stand.

History

The first Russian plans for the bridge were put forward by Tsar Nicholas II in 1903, but were then sidelined by wars and economic concerns soon afterward. German engineer Albert Speer picked up the idea for the bridge in 1943, envisioning that it would aid in the Nazi takeover of Soviet Russia. Bridge construction started that year, but was halted by Soviet attacks, and much of the remaining bridge was blown up by the German army during its retreat from the region.

The next year, the Soviet Army used the leftover building materials to build a single-track railway bridge across the strait for the wartime Yalta Conference. Part of the conference delegation managed to take the train across the bridge, but seasonal ice floes took out several of the structure’s supports in early 1945, and the bridge was not repaired. More permanent plans were put on hold due to the cost of the project and the difficult building conditions across the strait.

After the Soviet Union collapsed, politics became yet another barrier to bridge building. In 1954, Soviet Russia had transferred control of the Crimean Peninsula to Soviet Ukraine, so Russia no longer had control of Crimea when the USSR disbanded. Proposed projects in the 1990s and 2000s collapsed, but in 2010, the two countries finally signed an agreement to build a bridge together.

But Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 severely strained relations between the two countries. The Ukraine imposed sanctions on Crimea, effectively cutting off most of its trade and forcing it to conduct trade across the strait with Russia by ferry. These sanctions made goods expensive in Crimea, as well as limited the number of Russia tourists crossing the strait to vacation there. So, in 2015, Putin announced that Russia would build a bridge to the peninsula on its own.

Building Bridges

In early 2015, the Russian government awarded the 228billion-ruble ($3.7 billion) bridge contract to infrastructure construction firm Stroygazmontazh Ltd. (SGM), a company that specialized in pipelines but which had not previously built any major bridges. The risk of international sanctions made it difficult to attract foreign investment or obtain insurance to cover the project, and SGM eventually used a small Crimean insurance company to underwrite a potential $3 billion loss.

The physical environment also presented several barriers to bridge construction. The site’s historic significance briefly worked against the project: divers searching the sea floor in preparation for the construction found over 200 bombs and a downed WWII-era plane. The weather also posed problems in the early stages of the project. Leonid Ryzhenkin, the project’s construction director, told NPR in 2016 that poor weather had interfered with the work, making it impossible for construction vessels to leave port. To limit weather disruption, SGM put up three temporary bridges to transport workers, supplies and heavy machinery like mobile cranes and piling rigs to the build sites.

Despite these disruptions, the project was finished ahead of schedule. And while officials projected that the road portion of the bridge would be finished by the end of 2018, it’s already open to light traffic.

The finished road bridge has four lanes, with a two-lane railroad bridge planned for the end of 2019. It stretches from the town of Taman in Russia to the city of Kerch on the Crimean Peninsula, passing through Tuzla Island along the way. It covers 4 miles of open water between Taman and Tuzla, 4 miles across the sandy island, and 3.4 more miles of water from Tuzla to Crimea.

Between Tuzla and Crimea, there is a 745-foot double shipping channel arch, with one arch on the road bridge and one on the forthcoming rail bridge. Both arches have a 115-foot clearance for boats to pass underneath. The arches were built on land and towed out to sea by boat.

The road bridge is completed, and the rail bridge is on track to be finished soon. International disapproval hasn’t stopped the project’s construction—or even slowed it. But while the political and economic challenges facing the bridge have largely been overcome, there are other possible threats lurking under the waterline.

Shaky Ground

The Kerch Strait is known to be geologically unstable. A tectonic fault passes through the ocean floor under the strait, and the bedrock is covered in a layer of silt up to 197 feet thick that must be dug through to get a stable foundation. Further complicating matters is that the strait’s seismic activity can make mud volcanoes from the silt. Mud volcanoes are formed when water heated deep in the Earth’s crust mixes with underground mineral deposits, and the mixture is forced upward through a geological fault. As of 2010, Ukraine’s Department of Marine Geology and Sedimentary Ore Formation reported almost 70 mud volcanoes found in the Azov-Black Sea Basin where the Kerch Strait is located.

The bridge is supported by over 7,000 piles of three different varieties: bored piles (reinforced concrete piles poured into depressions on-site), prismatic piles (blunt, wedge-shaped supports), and tubular steel piles. These piles were driven up to 300 feet below water level because of concerns about stability.

But not everyone thinks these measures will be enough to keep the bridge steady on its perilous ground. Civil engineer Georgy Rosnovsky, who previously designed two other possible versions of the Kerch Bridge, is troubled by the current design. He believes that the bridge is necessary, but has stated that he thinks it’s being built “in the wrong place and the wrong way.” He believes the pilings need to be at least 100 meters (328 feet) long, and worries that they are not sunk deep enough into the bedrock to be stable.

Rosnovsky also thinks that the bridge’s spans (the distance between supports) aren’t long to allow ice floes through. He planned his 1993 bridge with spans of 230-660 meters (755-2,170 feet), but said that any spans over 200 meters would be safe from ice. The current design’s longest span is 227 meters, but most of the spans are much shorter than that. According to Rosnovsky, this design puts the bridge at risk of suffering the same fate as the temporary bridge that was destroyed by ice floes in 1945.

Yuri Medovar, of the Russian Academy of Sciences, is another critic of the bridge. Talking to news agency Sotavision in late 2016, Medovar expressed concern that the area hadn’t been sufficiently mapped, and that the complex geology and weather conditions would make the structure risky. He warned of the costs of poorly built bridges, citing the 2013 bridge collapse in Borisoglebsk that killed two people. “You can build everything, ” he concluded, “but how much it will cost, and how [long will it] stand?”

Despite the difficult building conditions, the bridge’s creators aren’t worried about the possibility of collapse. “It will stay intact for 100 years, Rotenberg said in an interview with the Itogi Nedeli weekly news roundup after the bridge’s inaugural drive. “At least. We guarantee that. Everything is done perfectly well.” But critics like Rosenberg aren’t satisfied. “It’s a rich firm, but it’s not built by experts. They think that money is everything,” Rosnovsky told FOCUS in 2016. “The bridges are built from the calculation of the service life of a hundred years, but I think that this bridge will be short-lived.”

Source : www.engineering.com

World’s Biggest Infrastructure Project is One You Never Heard Of

While the U.S. dawdles with much needed domestic infrastructure upgrades, China is already engaged in a project so massive that it will tilt the Earth in its favor. The trillion-dollar Belt Road Initiative (BRI) is a plan for a web of transportation routes (road, rail, shipping lanes, more—all leading to China) that will be created or expanded over the next 30-plus years. The BRI’s main purpose is to facilitate trade. China, the world’s leading producer of exports, no longer wants to rely on slow moving boats to move its goods out.

Lost in Translation

BRI not ringing any bells? This development plan for a number of megaprojects was introduced in 2013 as the One Belt One Road (OBOR). The “belt” referred to the roads, and “road,” inexplicably, the sea lanes. It was renamed the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) at the 2017 Belt and Road Forum(BARF? Really, guys?) in Beijing.

The U.S.—and most of the West—paid scant attention. Even now, as money and concrete are pouring into projects, the U.S. continues to draw inward, led with an “America First” ideology. By the time the concrete is dry on the New Silk Road projects (China hopes to finish by 2049), the economic effect and, later, its political and even military consequences of the New Silk Road could make China the most dominant world super power for centuries to come.

Walls and Bridges

Under the Trump administration, the U.S. pulled out of the Paris Climate Accord in 2017 and then the Trans-Pacific Partnership. The proposed Mexico border wall extension will further separate the U.S. from neighbors to the South.

China’s state-run news agency responded with this during the Beijing conference, without any sense of irony: “As some Western countries move backwards by erecting ‘walls’, China is contriving to build bridges.” It was China that built the most famous wall of all time, the Great Wall, to keep out its neighbors to the North.

The New Silk Road will help China connect its far-flung provinces, but most of the development plans seem to be in neighboring countries with global trade partners. The BRI will help connect the heavily populated eastern part of the country with its Western provinces, which are considered underpopulated and underdeveloped. The highly promoted two thousand-kilometer Qinhai-Tibet railway, ostensibly built for tourism, deposits 3,000 Han Chinese (the predominant Chinese ethnic group) into Tibet, and has already made native Tibetans a minority in their own land.

While China has earmarked $900 billion to spend on the New Silk Road, the country is also prepared to loan $8 trillion to over 60 countries, many of them too poor to fund their own big infrastructure projects. One trillion dollars is said to have already been allocated by these countries. By comparison, the entire 47,000 miles of the US Interstate Highway system cost roughly half that amount ($459 billion).

Bugs Life Leads to Silk Roads

On its way to adulthood, the larvae of a certain insect, the Bombyx mori, gorge themselves on mulberry leaves and spin themselves into a cocoon so they can privately morph into an adult moth. One of these journeys was interrupted thousands of years ago, as Chinese legend has it, when a cocoon fell from a tree into a royal tea cup. A bored, but inquisitive, queen unraveled the cocoon into a one surprisingly long continuous fiber. The fiber could be spun into a thread which could produce the most luxuriant fabric. A silk industry was born.

Word of silk spread all the way to ancient Rome. Favored by Roman nobility, its trade became lucrative. Centuries of trade between Asia and Europe led to a tangle of trail and thoroughfares. Countless travelers, traders and pack animals demanded food, shelter and supplies. Marco Polo travelled along the Silk Road in the 13^th century. Towns and cities formed and grew. The Silk Road also spread wealth and facilitated cultural exchange.

The journeys along the Silk Road were not for the faint-hearted. They were plagued by bandits, extortionary rates of passage, ridiculous extremes in weather and imposing physical barriers. Some dangers were unseen. The camels carried fleas and introduced the bubonic plague to Europe.

The Silk Road name came much later, coined by German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877 who was seeking a succinct term for the multitude of thoroughfares connecting Asia and Europe. Historians now favor the use of the more accurate “Silk Routes.”

Slow Boats to China

The Middle Ages led to ocean-going ships that took over from camel caravans over deserts and mountains. The Silk Road lapsed to serving local trade.

The modern maritime fleet relies on container ships for dry goods and tankers for liquids, both of which have reached gargantuan proportions. The biggest of all ships, a tanker, holds enough oil for 15,000 tanker trucks. Only a bit shorter, the biggest container ship carries 19,000 truck loads. Since China houses the world’s biggest labor force and produces the most goods, it makes sense that China also has the largest set of container ports to get those goods out, including the world’s biggest in Shanghai.

It’s not enough. The world’s growing appetites for goods demand that more of them arrive faster. Those ships could use more ports, and existing ports could be modernized. More ships could be built. For goods that are to be consumed and producers on the same landmass, why not connect them with modern highways and railroads? Why go around continents or through choke points (examples: the Suez and Panama canals) when you can make a relative beeline with a tractor trailer on a smooth multilane highway?

Maritime traffic dots China’s port cities. Ships squeezes through the Panama canals and Suez canals. (An interactive map, created by the data-visualization firm Kiln and University College London’s Energy Institute.)

Iron Will, Iron Road

Only China would seem to have the ability to even consider a project the magnitude of the New Silk Road. Upheavals caused by mega-projects are plagued by detractors in democracies. Transecting an unspoiled wilderness with pipelines or roads in the U.S. may be met with protest from environmentalists. Trying to move villages for a hydroelectric project will cause riots in India. In China, the national will overrides individual and special interests.

But joining the super initiative are 68 countries, all seeking benefits of trade passing through their borders—lands that time and technology may have forgotten can now hope to get into the act.

Not all countries are giving China a green light, however. Regional powers India and Japan (among others) have expressed reservations, each with a historical distrust of China’s international ambition.

What is Happening Right Now?

The New Silk Road is a big story told in billions of dollars.

In Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), the financially suffering Hambantota port was handed over to a Chinese company and has received almost $300 million out of a total of $1.1 billion for its revitalization. It has neighboring India a little nervous. A regional power, India has fought wars with Sri Lanka.

India’s prime minister has loudly objected to roadways cut through regions in dispute with Pakistan. Though these routes from China through Pakistan may not be officially part of the New Silk Road, they might as well be. Pakistan’s old roads will be improved, and new roads will be built. No small task, as the roads will snake over the tallest mountain range in the world with passes of over 5,000 meters. China has promised Pakistan $46 billion in energy and infrastructure—about 1/6 of Pakistan’s GDP. While the roads and rail will shortcut Chinese goods to Karachi and the Gwadar Port (half the cost of the much longer sea route), the coal power plant and hydro power stations planned will benefit the local economy for generations.

An estimated $300 billion has already been spent.

Eastward, Ho.

Tibet, annexed by China in 1951, is known for the Dalai Lama (he used to live there), yaks—and one of the most inhospitable climates in the world. China sees it as a frontier to be settled, much the same way as the US thought of its West in the 1800s. Only 2 million Tibetans occupy an area that is somewhere in size between Texas and Alaska. There are 40 Chinese cities with more people than the entire Tibet Autonomous Region. To balance the population load, a railway was built.

It was a railway they said could never be built and qualifies as one of the modern world’s engineering marvels. Opened with great fanfare in 2006, China invited travel writers seeking the ultimate luxury rail adventure. It wasn’t a luxury. Complaints include not enough oxygen (oxygen masks drop from overhead and the highest elevation is 17,000 ft.) and the vomiting. But the pristine vistas and clear skies may be enticing enough for Chinese fleeing overcrowded cities, rampant pollution and limited opportunity. They may hope to tap into timber and mineral wealth. They will need places to live and an infrastructure to support them.

Gassing up in Russia

China and Russia, “frenemies” through recent history, are acting on the opportunity provided by the void left behind by the U.S. in international relations. The China-Russian deal in 2014 has China buying 38 billion cubic meters of natural gas from Moscow for $400 billion. Parts of the New Silk Road are the pipelines that must be built to handle the flow of gas. In addition, plans call for road and rail to be newly constructed or improved (like the Trans Siberia Railway).

Chinese sources have the New Silk Road snaking through Poland and Germany, ending its western overland route by dropping off containers in London, after use of the existing Chunnel.

China’s trade with European nations is said to be a billion dollars a day and the E.U. trade with China is second only to the US—a situation that could easily switch to China’s favor with the completion of the New Silk Road.

Another country spurned by the U.S is being courted by China and included in New Silk Road projects: Iran. A New Silk Road corridor opened up in 2016 as a freight train completed a 10,000-km journey from Tehran, Iran to China.

Will it Work?

China has spent some of its 5,000 years of civilization in isolation. But since the emergence of a globalized economy, the choice has been either active participation or marginalization as the world passes by. Haltingly at first, Communist-led China has found advantage in participating in capitalist markets with its incredibly large human population. Cheap labor never seems to run out and workers work diligently for more hours per day and more days per week than in the West. Add to that the apparent disregard for costly safeguards Western nations have (arguably) put in place for protection of man and animal, of air and water, and the country has the formula for an engine to be able to make, grow or mine just about everything the rest of the world wears or uses. The New Silk Road is not only an expansion and improvement in the methods to get the goods out there at a faster rate, it creates a further dependence on China and increases its influence.

That’s if it all goes according to plan. China’s economy is deemed slow when GDP dips below 7 percent—when United States and European countries get than 2 percent growth. China’s population growth has been on a decline for decades, which will limit the labor force, if it hasn’t already. The aforementioned work conditions may also cause workers to ultimately throw a collective wrench in the engine. The smog over its cities gets thicker and the rivers have become more toxic; that will not be a cheap clean up, further slowing down the economy. China also has to play nice with others. Neighboring countries may see it as the big kid who has finally come out of his house to play but could steal their marbles. Building trust could be slow. China is also finding out that people in other countries are not as easy to control as its own. Parts of the New Silk Road stop abruptly at some countries’ borders, as their rulers fidget with more pressing issues.

Nevertheless, there is no mistaking such a huge investment will make a big difference when coupled with the force of a unified people and government and a massive investment.

Historians may one day see the New Silk Road as the catalyst for a new world order, with China on top. All without firing a shot.

Source : www.engineering.com

The new airport at the crossroads of Europe and Asia that’s vying to be the world’s largest

Istanbul’s new airport, built to replace the ageing Ataturk, will boast Europe’s largest terminal hotel, with futuristic cabin aficionados Yotel opening its first property to have both land- and air-side rooms.

The hotel will be the trendy brand’s fifth at an airport, with its pod rooms already at both Heathrow and Gatwick, and eighth overall. The deal between the start-up and airport operator iGA will see Yotel’s 451-room (102 beyond security) property establish a base in Turkey, from where it plans to open another hotel in Istanbul city centre.

The stylish, compact capsules at the heart of Yotel’s guiding principles are available to book by the four-hour period, allowing travellers with early or late flights a convenient stopping point at an airport, or those in transit the opportunity to sleep in a private space.

Yotel ceo Hubert Viriot told Telegraph Travel the Istanbul New Airport branch would be the company’s “flagship” hotel. As it stands, 14 more are in the pipeline, including one at Singapore Changi, an airport regularly voted best in the world. The remainder are planned for city centres. Viriot said Yotel is planning to open another hotel in central London, in Clerkenwell, and have a 50-strong portfolio by 2023.

“Cabins remain a very true concept for us,” he said. “A lot of our inspiration for the brand came from airlines, in terms of design and technology.

“We were amazed at the premium cabins you can find on aircraft, and you are talking about minimal space.

“We are offering really well-designed rooms. Yes, they are compact, but they have all the luxury you may expect from an upscale hotel.”

The property at the new Istanbul airport will also boast a 24-hour gym, restaurant, bar and meeting room facilities.

What is a Yotel hotel room like?

Rachel Cranshaw, one of Telegraph Travel’s hotel experts, said of the Yotel cabins at London Gatwick: “Cabins (standard sleeping one; premium/premium twin sleeping two) are full of pleasingly high-tech and space-efficient innovations: sofas glide out into beds at the touch of a button; a control panel offers a number of different lighting arrangements (ideal if you’re jet-lagged); there’s a full-length mirror behind a small space for hanging clothes, and a shoe rack at the bottom of it; a table and chair fold out from the wall and there is ample shelving space and plug sockets. There’s also a Smart TV.

“Glass-fronted en-suites have hot, powerful rain showers – just the ticket after a flight, with fluffy towels for after. Toiletries are basic: a body wash/shampoo combo only, but a bag of additional useful products is available from reception for a small fee. There’s luggage storage under the bed, which is comfortable, with a feather duvet and plenty of pillows. Hairdryers are available to borrow from reception, along with alarm clocks, ear plugs, shower caps, and extra towels/pillows/blankets.”

Why is Istanbul getting a new airport?

Ataturk, the 15th busiest airport in the world, is full to the brim so is being replaced with Istanbul New Airport, which will open later this year. Ataturk, which was hit by a bomb attack in 2016, will cease operations shortly after.