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Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering

The aim of this book is to serve as an introduction to and an overview of the latest structural earthquake engineering. The book deals with aspects of geology, engineering seismology and geotechnical engineering that are of service to the earthquake structural engineering educator, practitioner and researcher. It frames earthquake structural engineering within a framework of balance between ‘ Demand ’ and ‘ Supply ’ (requirements imposed on the system versus its available capacity for action and deformation
resistance).

In a system – integrated framework, referred to as ‘ From Source – to – Society ’ , where ‘ Source ’ describes the focal mechanisms of earthquakes, and ‘ Society ’ describes the compendium of effects on complex societal systems, this book presents information pertinent to the evaluation of actions and deformations imposed by earthquakes on structural systems. It is therefore a ‘ Source – to – Structure ’ text.

Practising engineers with long and relatively modern experience in earthquake – resistant design in high – seismicity regions will fi nd the book on the whole easy to read and rather basic. They may however appreciate the presentation of fundamental response parameters and may fi nd their connection to the structural and societal limit states refreshing and insightful. They may also benefi t from the modelling notes of Chapter 4 , since use is made of concepts of fi nite element representation in a specifi cally earthquake engineering context. Many experienced structural earthquake engineering practitioners will fi nd Chapter 3 on input motion useful and practical. The chapter will aid them in selection of appropriate aracterization of ground shaking. The book as a whole, especially Chapters 3 and 4 is highly recommended for practising engineers with limited or no experience in earthquake engineering.

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How does LiDAR work?

The principle behind LiDAR is really quite simple. Shine a small light at a surface and measure the time it takes to return to its source. When you shine a torch on a surface what you are actually seeing is the light being reflected and returning to your retina. Light travels very fast – about 300,000 kilometres per second, 186,000 miles per second or 0.3 metres per nanosecond so turning a light on appears to be instantaneous. Of course, it’s not! The equipment required to measure this needs to operate extremely fast. Only with the advancements in modern computing technology has this become possible.

The actual calculation for measuring how far a returning light photon has travelled to and from an object is quite simple:

Distance = (Speed of Light x Time of Flight) / 2

The LiDAR instrument fires rapid pulses of laser light at a surface, some at up to 150,000 pulses per second. A sensor on the instrument measures the amount of time it takes for each pulse to bounce back. Light moves at a constant and known speed so the LiDAR instrument can calculate the distance between itself and the target with high accuracy. By repeating this in quick succession the insturment builds up a complex ‘map’ of the surface it is measuring. With airborne LiDAR other data must be collected to ensure accuracy. As the sensor is moving height, location and orientation of the instrument must be included to determine the position of the laser pulse at the time of sending and the time of return. This extra information is crucial to the data’s integrity. With ground based LiDAR a single GPS location can be added for each location where the instrument is set up.

Generally there are two types of LiDAR detection methods. Direct energy detection, also known as incoherent, and Coherent detection. Coherent systems are best for Doppler or phase sensitive measurements and generally use Optical heterodyne detection. This allows them to operate at much lower power but has the expense of more complex transceiver requirements. In both types of LiDAR there are two main pulse models: micropulse and high-energy systems. Micropulse systems have developed as a result of more powerful computers with greater computational capabilities. These lasers are lower powered and are classed as ‘eye-safe’ allowing them to be used with little safety precautions. High energy systems are more commonly used for atmospheric research where they are often used for measuring a variety of atmospheric parameters such as the height, layering and density of clouds, cloud particles properties, temperature, pressure, wind, humidity and trace gas concentration.

Most LiDAR systems use four main components:

Lasers :

Lasers are categorised by their wavelength. 600-1000nm lasers are more commonly used for non-scientific purposes but, as they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye, the maximum power has to be limited to make them ‘eye-safe’. Lasers with a wavelength of 1550nm are a common alternative as they are not focused by the eye and are ‘eye-safe’ at much higher power levels. These wavelengths are used for longer range and lower accuracy purposes. Another advantage of 1550nm wavelengths is that they do not show under night-vision goggles and are therefore well suited to military applications.

Airborne LiDAR systems use 1064nm diode pumped YAG lasers whilst Bathymetric systems use 532nm double diode pumped YAG lasers which penetrate water with much less attenuation than the airborne 1064nm version. Better resolution can be achieved with shorter pulses provided the receiver detector and electronics have sufficient bandwidth to cope with the increased data flow.

Scanners and Optics :

The speed at which images can be developed is affected by the speed at which it can be scanned into the system. A variety of scanning methods are available for different purposes such as azimuth and elevation, dual oscillating plane mirrors, dual axis scanner and polygonal mirrors. They type of optic determines the resolution and range that can be detected by a system.

Photodetector and receiver electronics :

The photodetector is the device that reads and records the signal being returned to the system. There are two main types of photodetector technologies, solid state detectors, such as silicon avalanche photodiodes and photomultipliers.

Navigation and positioning systems :

When a LiDAR sensor is mounted on a mobile platform such as satellites, airplanes or automobiles, it is necessary to determine the absolute position and the orientation of the sensor to retain useable data. Global Positioning Systems provide accurate geographical information regarding the position of the sensor and an Inertia Measurement Unit (IMU) records the precise orientation of the sensor at that location. These two devices provide the method for translating sensor data into static points for use in a variety of systems.

Steel Structures Design and Practice

Structural design emphasizes that the elements of a structure are to be proportioned
and joined together in such a way that they will be able to withstand all the loads
(load effects) that are likely to act on it during its service life, without excessive
deformation or collapse.

Structural design is often considered as an art as well as
a science. It must balance theoretical analysis with practical considerations, such
as the degree of certainty of loads and forces, the actual behaviour of the structure
as distinguished from the idealized analytical and design model, the actual behaviour
of the material compared to the assumed elastic behaviour, and the actual properties
of materials used compared to the assumed ones.

Steel is one of the major construction materials used all over the world. It has
many advantages over other competing materials, such as high strength to weight
ratio, high ductility (hence its suitability for earthquake-resistant structures), and
uniformity. It is also agreen material in the sense that it is fully recyclable. Presently,
several grades and shapes of steel products exist.

Structural designers need to have a sound knowledge of structural steel behaviour,
including the material behaviour of steel, and the structural behaviour of individual
elements and of the complete structure. Unless structural engineers are abreast of
the recent developments and understand the relationships between the structural
behaviour and the design criteria implied by the rules of the design codes, they will
be following the coda1 rules rigidly and blindly and may even apply them incorrectly
in situations beyond their scope.

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Crane Supporting Steel Structure Design Guide

This guide fills a long-standing need for technical information for the design and construction of crane-supporting steel structures that is compatible with Canadian codes and standards written in Limit States format.

It is intended to be used in conjunction with the National Building Code of Canada, 2005 (NBCC 2005), and CSAStandard S16-01, Limit States Design of Steel Structures (S16-01). Previous editions of these documents have not covered many loading and design issues of crane-supporting steel structures in sufficient detail.

Whilemany references are available as given herein, they do not cover loads and load combinations for limit states design nor are they well correlated to the class of cranes being supported. Classes of cranes are defined in CSA

Standard B167 or in specifications of the Crane Manufacturers Association of America (CMAA).

This guide provides information on how to apply the current Canadian Codes and Standards to aspects of design of crane-supporting structures such as loads, load combinations, repeated loads, notional loads, monosymmetrical sections, analysis for torsion, stepped columns, and distortion induced fatigue.

The purpose of this design guide is twofold:

1. To provide the owner and the designer with a practical set of guidelines, design aids, and references that can be applied when designing or assessing the condition of crane-supporting steel structures.

2. To provide examples of design of key components of crane-supporting structures in accordance with:

(a) loads and load combinations that have proven to be reliable and are generally accepted by the industry,

(b) the recommendations contained herein, including NBCC 2005 limit states load combinations,

(d) duty cycle analysis.

The scope of this design guide includes crane-supporting steel structures regardless of the type of crane.

Theinteraction of the crane and its supporting structure is addressed. The design of the crane itself, including jib cranes, gantry cranes, ore bridges, and the like, is beyond the scope of this Guide and is covered by specifications such as those published by the CMAA.

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Elastic Beam Calculations Handbook

As a comprehensive analytic treatment on elastic beam problems, with balanced
emphasis on both the theoretical and the practical, this book is a vastly expanded
version of the author’s Goldenbrook’s Little Red Book (2004) both in spirit and in style
and with the same approach I call open-mindedness.

The previous book was writtenprimarily for students.

The prevailing trend in education advocates critical thinking

and promotes continuing education, as exemplified by the requirements for Profes-
sional Engineer licensing.

Therefore, this book is intended for students and their teachers, as well as all structural engineers and applied mathematics professionals.

This book uses innovative analytic approaches that combine tactful applications of
mathematics with structural engineering, thereby helping the reader gain insight into
the physical implications of the formulae presented.

This means that an effective analytic treatment of the elastic beams will shed light on how the numerical work can best be planned and executed with clarity and optimal results, as well as a
minimum of time, effort, and cost.

The writing philosophy of this book leads to a presentation at once both simple
and logical, so that many important and interesting problems can be solved as
corollaries of a general theorem.

In this way, the reader will be able to see not only the trees but also the forest; this “big picture” approach is intended to be both enjoyable and inspirational.

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Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects

The structure of a building (or other object) is the part which is responsible
for maintaining the shape of the building under the infl uence of the
forces, loads and other environmental factors to which it is subjected.

It is important that the structure as a whole (or any part of it) does not fall
down, break or deform to an unacceptable degree when subjected to such
forces or loads.

The study of structures involves the analysis of the forces and stresses
occurring within a structure and the design of suitable components to
cater for such forces and stresses.

As an analogy, consider the human body. Your body comprises a skeleton
of 206 bones which constitutes the structure of your body.

If any of those bones were to break, or if any of the joints between those bones were
to disconnect or seize up, your injured body would ‘fail’ structurally (and
cause you a great deal of pain!).

If you are a student studying a module called Structures, Structural Mechanics
or similar, the chapter headings in this book will tie in – more or
less – with the lecture topics presented by your lecturer or tutor.

I suggest you read each chapter of this book soon after the relevant lecture or class
to reinforce your knowledge and skills in the topic concerned.

I advise all readers to have a pen and paper beside them to jot down notes as they go
through the book – particularly the numerical examples.

In my experience,this greatly aids understanding.

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Hydraulic Structures

The major function of a hydraulic project (i.e., water project) is to alter the natural

behavior of a water body (river, lake, sea, groundwater) by concentrating its flow fall.

It is intended for purposeful use for the benefits of national economy and to protect

the environment, including electric power generation, flood control, water supply,

silt mitigation, navigation, irrigation and draining, fish handling and farming,

ecologic protection, and recreation.

It is common that a number of hydraulic structures (i.e., hydraulic works) of general

or special purposes are constructed to form a single or integrated hydraulic project to

comprehensively serve foregoing purposes.

Such a project is known as the water resources project or hydropower project in China,

and the latter is primarily for electric power generation in addition to other possible benefits.

The general-purpose and special-purpose hydraulic structures which are parts of a hydraulic project can be further divided into main, auxiliary, and temporary structures.

As a result the successful management of a civil engineering project depends upon use

of an appropriate contract for construction; the judgements of the civil engineer in charge

and his team of engineering advisers; the need to arrange for supervision of the work of construction as it proceeds, and on the competence of the contractor engaged to build

the works and his engineers and tradesmen.

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Structural and Stress Analysis Theories, tutorials and examples

Any material or structure may fail when it is loaded. The successful design of a structure requires detailed structural and stress analysis in order to assess whether or not it can safely support the required loads.

Figure 1.1 shows how a structure behaves under applied loads.

To prevent structural failure, a typical design must consider the following three major aspects:

1 Strength – The structure must be strong enough to carry the applied loads.
2 Stiffness – The structure must be stiff enough such that only allowable deformation occurs.
3 Stability – The structure must not collapse through buckling subjected to the applied compressive loads.

The subject of structural and stress analysis provides analytical, numerical and experimental
methods for determining the strength, stiffness and stability of load-carrying structural members.

This book is not intended to be an additional textbook of structural and stress analysis for
students who have already been offered many excellent textbooks which are available on the
market.

Instead of going through rigorous coverage of the mathematics and theories, this
book summarizes major concepts and important points that should be fully understood before
students claim that they have successfully completed the subject.

One of the main features of this book is that it aims at helping students to understand the subject through asking and answering conceptual questions, in addition to solving problems based on applying the derived formulas.

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Steel Design for the Civil PE and Structural SE Exams

My purpose in writing this book is twofold. First, to help practicing engineers who are

preparing for the civil structural Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam or

the structural engineering (SE) exam, both administered by the National Council

of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES).

Second, to help engineering students who are learning about structural steel.

This book, then, is designed to be useful as a guide for studying on your own

or as a text for an introductory or intermediate class in steel design.

The main purpose of this book, Steel Design for the Civil PE and Structural SE

Exams,is to be a study reference for engineers and students who are preparing

to take either the civil structural PE exam or the structural SE exam, both of

which are given by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and

Surveying (NCEES).

These exams—even the breadth section of the civil PE exam, which is more

general in its scope—often contain structural questions that go beyond the basics.

If you want to be prepared for all questions in steel design, this book will give you

the thorough review you need.

However, anyone who wants to learn more about the most current steel design methods can benefit from this book. It can serve as a guide for those who are studying on their own or as a text in a formal course.

After a quick review of some basics in the early chapters, each chapter in turn explores in greater detail a different aspect of steel design. Among the topics covered are :

• loads and load combinations
• analysis methods
• design : of beams, columns, and plate girders
: of members under combined stresses
: of composite members
• bolted and welded connections

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