The general steps for analysing a determinate frame are: Use equilibrium to find all reaction forces. Split the frame into separate members. Any point load or moment which acts directly on a joint between two or more members must be placed on only ONE of the members when they are split up.
Wind Analysis for Circular Structure Based on ASCE 7-16
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Foundation is the main part of any type of structure (Buildings, bridges, tunnels…). It distributes the weight of the structure over a large area of soil, avoid unequal settlement, increase structural stability and prevent lateral movement of structure.
There are different types of soil and for each individual one, soil bearing capacity is different. So, depending on the soil profile, size and load of the structure, engineers choose different types of foundation which can be shallow foundation or deep foundation.
Shallow foundation system consists of two main types: Footings and raft or mat foundation.
Footing is one of the most important parts of a structure which transfers loads of a structure to the underlying soil.
The selection of footing depends on the following factors:
The different types of footings used for building construction are listed below:
Strip footings (known as strip foundations) are a shallow foundation type, usually boasting a foundation level that is no greater than 3m from the ground surface.
Strip foundations can be used for most subsoils, but are most suitable for soil which is of relatively good bearing capacity. They are particularly suited to light structural loadings such as those found in many low-rise or medium-rise domestic buildings – where mass concrete strip foundations can be used. In other situations, reinforced concrete may be required.
Very broadly, the size and position of strip foundations is typically related to the wall’s overall width. The depth a traditional strip foundation is generally equal to or greater than the overall wall width, and the foundation width is generally three times the width of the supported wall. This results in the load being transmitted at 45º from the wall base to the soil.
Wide strip foundations may be required where the soil is soft or of a low bearing capacity, so as to spread the load over a larger area. Wide strip foundations will typically require reinforcement.
Strip footing foundation
The spread footing is utilized to support the column & walls and additionally to convey & disseminate the load coming to the structure to the soil below it.
With loads provided within the upward direction, this footing actually acts like an inverted cantilever, and this sort of footing is typically a rigid element & they’re orthogonal just in case of symmetric footing.
As the name suggests, a spread is given under the base of the foundation so that the load of the structure is distributed on wide area of the soil in such a way that the safe bearing capacity of soil is not exceeded.
Isolated footings (also known as Pad or Spread footings) are commonly used for shallow foundations in order to carry and spread concentrated loads, caused for example by columns or pillars.
Isolated footings can consist either of reinforced or non-reinforced material. For the non-reinforced footing however, the height of the footing has to be bigger in order to provide the necessary spreading of load.
Its thickness is constant and its shape can be circular, rectangular or square. It is economic and requires less excavation but its size is highly depended on the load and it is less resistant in lateral forces.
This type of footing includes the construction of a footing step by step until it reaches the desired width. This technique is mostly used in residential buildings but its utilization has been decayed over the last decades.
The stepped footing is a simple type of isolated footing which is provided over soil having less bearing capacity. Because of low soil capacity load need to be transferred on the larger area.
Stepped footings are also used to keep metal columns away from direct contact with soil to save them from corrosion effects. This type of footing carries the load of metal columns and transmit this load to the underground.
Stepped Footing Foundation
Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread footing, it is called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are generally the economical. Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as
Combined Footing Foundation
The strapped footings having sloping top or side faces are known as sloped footings. This type of footing is useful in the construction of formwork.
Sloped or trapezoidal footings are designed and executed with utmost attention to maintain a top slope of 45 degrees from all sides. The amount of reinforcement and concrete used in the sloped footing construction is less than that of plain isolated footing. Therefore, it decreases the utilization of concrete and reinforcement.
Sloped Footing Foundation
A strap footing usually supports two columns, so it’s a special type of combined footing. If a property line exists at or near the edge of an exterior column, a normal isolated footing would be placed eccentrically under this column and it would tend to tilt.
This problem may be prevented by connecting this footing with the adjacent interior footing with a strap concrete beam. The use of a strap footing may be justifiable where the distance between columns is long and a regular combined footing is impractical due to the required large excavation.
Strap Footing Foundation
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A Retaining Wall is a structure that is designed and constructed to withstand lateral pressure of soil or hold back soil materials.
The lateral pressure could be also due to earth filling, liquid pressure, sand, and other granular materials behind the retaining wall structure.
Retaining walls are vertical or near-vertical structures designed to retain material on one side, preventing it from collapsing or slipping or preventing erosion. They provide support to terrain where the soil’s angle of repose is exceeded and it would otherwise collapse into a more natural form. The principal characteristic of a retaining wall is being able to withstand the pressure exerted by the retained material, which is usually soil.
The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained material to move downslope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on the angle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained material, as well as the direction and magnitude of movement the retaining structure undergoes.
Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall and – in homogenous ground – increase proportionally to a maximum value at the lowest depth. Earth pressures will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system causes hydrostatic pressure on the wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of uniform height.
It is important to have proper drainage behind the wall in order to limit the pressure to the wall’s design value. Drainage materials will reduce or eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and improve the stability of the material behind the wall. Drystone retaining walls are normally self-draining. As an example, the International Building Code requires retaining walls to be designed to ensure stability against overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water uplift; and that they be designed for a safety factor of 1.5 against lateral sliding and overturning.
There ara various types of retaining wall structures which are used for numerous goals.
Gravity retaining wall depends on its self weight only to resist earth pressure.
Commonly, gravity retaining wall is massive because it requires significant gravity load to counter act soil pressure.
Slidin, overturning and bearing forces shall be taken into consideration while this type of retaining wall structure is designed.
It can be constructed from different materials such as concrete, stone and masonry units.
Crib retaining wall, gabions and bin retaining wall are types of gravity retaining walls.
Gravity Retaining Wall
Crib Retaining Walls are low cost, of open web construction and can be quickly and inexpensively erected. They can be used almost anywhere a retaining wall is needed – driveways, building sites, garden areas, and when planted out will add beauty and value to your property.
Crib walls are gravity retaining walls constructed from interlocking precast concrete components, filled with free draining material and earth backfill, eliminating the hazards of hydrostatic pressure building up behind the wall.
Crib Retaining Wall
Gabion retaining walls are multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh boxes which are filled with rocks or other suitable materials.
It is employed for construction of erosion control structures and used to stabilize steep slopes.
Gabion Retaining Walls
Cantiliver retaining wall is composed of stem and base slab and is constructed from reinforced concrete, precast concrete or prestress concrete.
Cantiliver retaining wall is the most common type used as retaining walls.
Sometimes cantilevered walls are buttressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads. Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.
The portion of the base slab beneath material is termed as heel, and the other part is called toe. It is economical up to height of 10m. Similar to gravity wall, sliding, overturning and bearing pressure shall be taken into consideration during its design.
There are 3 different types of cantiliver retaining walls :
Cantiliver Retaining Wall
It is a cantiliver retaining wall but strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the back of the wall slab and base slab.
Counter fort spacing is equal or slightly larger than half of the counter-fort height. It’s height ranges from 8 to 12m.
Counter-fort Retaining Wall
A buttress wall is the modified version of the counter-fort retaining wall in which the counter-forts, known as the buttresses, are provided at the other side of the backfill.
A buttress wall is more economical when compared to a counter-fort retaining wall. Buttress walls are not much preferred due to the provision of buttresses in the wall. These buttresses reduc the clearance on the front side of the wall.
Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.
This type of retaining wall is used when the space is limited or thin retaining wall is required.
Anchored retaining wall is suitable for loos soil over rocks. Considerably high retaining wall can be constructed using this type of retaining wall structure system.
Deep cable rods or wires are driven deep sideways into the earth, then the ends are filled with concrete to provide anchor.
Anchors (tiebacks) actes against overturning and sliding pressure.
Advantages of anchored retaining walls
Anchored Retaining Wall
Pile retaining wall is constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to each other. Piles are forced into a depth that is sufficient to counter the force which tries to push over the wall.
Sheet pile walls are built using steel sheets into a slope or excavations up to a required depth, but it cannot withstand very high pressure. They are economical till height of 6m.
Piled Retainng wall
It is among the most economical and most commonly constructed retaining walls. Mechanically stabilized earth retaing wall is supported by selected fills (granular) and held together by reinforcements, which can be either metallic strips or plastic meshes.
Types of MSE retaining wall include panel, concrete block and temporary earth retaining walls.
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls
Retaining walls that use both mass and reinforcement for stability are termed as Hybrid or Composite retaining wall systems.
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LIDAR or Light Detection And Ranging uses lasers to measure the elevation of things like the ground forests and even buildings. It is lot like sonar which uses sound waves to map things, or radar which uses radio waves to map things, but a LIDAR system uses light sent out from a laser.
For the record, there are different ways to collect LIDAR data: from the ground, from an airplane or even from space.
Airborne LIDAR data are the most commonly available LIDAR data and airborne LIDAR data will also be freely available through the National Ecological Observatory Network or NEON. Many other sources are becoming free for many countries.
To understand how lasers are used to calculate height in airborne LIDAR, we need to focus on the four parts in the system.
1. LIDAR Unit – Scans the ground:
First, the airplane contains the LIDAR unit itself which uses a laser to scan the earth from side to side as the plane flies. The laser system uses either green or near infrared light because these wavelengths or types of light reflect strongly off of vegetation.
2. Global Positioning System – Tracks planes x,y,z position:
The next component of a LIDAR system is a GPS receiver that tracks the altitude and X,Y location of the airplane.
The GPS allows us to figure out where LIDAR reflections are on the ground.
3. Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) – Tracks Plate Position:
The third component of the LIDAR system is what’s called an inertial measurement unit or IMU.
The IMU tracks the tilt of the plane in the sky it flies which is important for accurate elevation calculations.
4. Computer – Records Data:
Finally, the LIDAR system includes a computer which records all that important height information that the LIDAR collects as it scans the earth’s surface.
The laser in the LIDAR system scans the earth actively emitting light energy towards the ground. Now before we go any farther, let us get two key LIDAR terms associated with this emitted light energy out of the way.
First, let’s define the word “pulse”. A pulse simply refers to a burst of light energy that is admitted by the LIDAR system.
And second, lets define the word “return”. Return the first reflected light energy that has been recorded by the LIDAR sensor.
Pulses of light energy travel to the ground and return back to the LIDAR sensor.
To get height the LIDAR system records the time that it takes for the light energy to travel to the ground and back. The system then uses the speed of light to calculate the distance between the top of that object and the plane.
To figure ground elevation, the plane’s altitude is calculated using the GPS receiver and then we subtract the distance that the light travel to the ground.
There are two more things in a LIDAR system to consider when calculating height. First, the plane rocks a bit in the sky as it flies due to turbulence in the air. These movements are recorded by the inertial measurement unit or IMU so that they can be accounted for when height values are calculated for each LIDAR return.
An airborne system scans the earth from side to side to cover a larger area on the ground when flying. So while some light pulses travel vertically from the plane to the ground or directly at nadir, most pulses leave the plane angle or off nadir. The system needs to account for pulse angle when it calculates elevation.
The LIDAR system emits pulses of light energy towards the ground using a laser, it then records the time it takes for the pulse to travel to the ground and return back to the sensor. It converts this time to distance using the speed of light.
The system then uses the plan’s altitude, tilt, and the angle of the pulse to calculate elevation. It also uses a GPS receiver to calculate the object’s location on the ground.
All this information is recorded on that handy dandy computer also mounted on the airplane.
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Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a concrete which flows under its own weight and doesn’t require any external vibration for compaction, it has revolutionized concrete placement.
Such concrete should have relatively low yield value to ensure high flow ability, a moderate viscosity to resists segregation and bleeding and must maintain its homogeneity during transportation, placing and curing to ensure adequate structural performance and long termdurability.
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) can be defined as a fresh concrete which possesses superior flow ability under maintained stability (i.e. no segregation) thus allowing self-compaction that is, material consolidation without addition of energy.
It is a fluid mixture suitable for placing in structures with Congested reinforcement without vibration and it helps in achieving higher quality of surface finishes.
The three properties that characterise a concrete as self-compacting Concrete are :
The main applications of this type of concrete are the following:
Self-compacting concrete comes with several advantages compared with regular concrete. Some of these benefits include:
As with any construction material, self-compacting concrete faces the following limitations:
Ordinary Portland Cement, 43 or 53 grade can be used
The maximum size of aggregate is generally limited to 20 mm. An aggregate of size 10 to 12mm is desirable for structures having congested reinforcement.
Wherever possible size of aggregate higher than 20mm could also be used. Well graded cubical or rounded aggregates are desirable.
Aggregates should be of uniform quality with respect to shape and grading. Fine aggregates can be natural or manufactured.
The grading must be uniform throughout the work. The moisture content or absorption characteristics must be closely monitored as the quality of SCC will be sensitive to such changes.
Particles smaller than 0.125 mm i.e. 125-micron size are considered as FINES which contribute to the powder content
Water quality must be established on the same line as that for using reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete.
Super plaseizers are an essential component of SCC providing necessary workability. The new generation super plasticizers termed poly-carboxylated ethers (PCE) is particularly useful for SCC.
Other types may be considered as necessary, such as Viscosity Modifying Agents (VMA) for stability, air-entraining agents (AEA) to improve freeze-thaw resistance, and retarders for Control of Setting.
This may vary according to the mix design and the properties required. Below is a list of the different mineral admixtures used, and the properties they provide to the concrete mixture:
Self-compacting concrete has higher fluidity compared to traditional concrete. Hence,there is a higher chance of spillage during transport. Additional caution is advised by reducing the batch size on the back of a truck, as well as ensuring the water-tightnessof the drum.
Extreme weather conditions (very high or low temperature) can affect the self-compacting properties of concrete. Under such conditions, the transport duration must be minimized by choosing non-peak hours in congested areas and also by choo-ing the closest concrete production plant to the placement site.
Overall, the averagetime that an SCC mixture can spend on the back of a truck before placement needs to be considered and the mixture design needs to be optimized accordingly. Otherwise,flowability properties might not be achieved.
An advantage of SCC is its excellent flow properties, which results in easier pumping and placing of SCC compared to traditional concrete. After discharging, self-compacting concrete can flow up to 10m in horizontal directions.
The excellent flowability of SCC also results in a much higher filling capability compared to traditional concrete, i.e. it can quickly fill inaccessible voids between reinforcements and formwork.
The placement rate of SCC can occur over ashort amount of time. Therefore, it is essential that all formwork, linings, reinforcing steel and any other embedded objects are secured and tightened before placement.
SCC can be placed with chutes, buckets and pumps. Pumping is the most common method of SCC placement because of excellent flowability without segregation.
Pumping of SCC from a truck using a crane pump at a building site
SCC is generally used for architectural concrete because the surface finish of SCC is of high quality, often more appealing with sharp edges compared to traditional concrete. The improved surface finish is attributed to the self-levelling and filling capabilities of SCC, which allows concrete to flow smoothly, and thereby fill holes.
The surface finish of traditional concrete often has discolouration because of hydrationby-products and segregation.
Other imperfections such as sand textured areas, honeycombing (aggregate bridging), and some problems caused by mortar loss canal so occur. Using SCC can increase the chance of eliminating these surface imperfections. However, a well-balanced concrete mixture with optimized rheological properties is required to achieve a high-quality surface finish for SCC, i.e. aesthetic appeal for exposed architectural use.
Mixtures with a lower viscosity, i.e. higher slump flow allow for entrained air to escape more efficiently and thereby provide a better surface finish.
The quality of formwork surfaces, type and amount of releasing agent, as well as production and placement methods also affect the surface finish of SCC.
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Polymer concrete is the composite material made by fully replacing the cement hydrate binders of conventional cement concrete with polymer binders or liquid resins, and is a kind of concrete-polymer composite.
For hardening of polymer concrete, most liquid resins such as thermosetting resins, methacrylic resins and tar-modified resins are polymerized at ambient or room temperature. The binder phase for polymer concrete consists only of polymers, and does not contain any cement hydrates. The aggregates are strongly bound to each other by polymeric binders.
The different ways in which the polymer is introduced into the concrete (hardened concrete) will vary widely based on the commercial objective. The polymers can be employed in concrete in different ways.
They are:
The advantages and disadvantages of polymeric binders are directly given to the polymer concrete. Accordingly, in comparison with ordinary cement concrete, its properties such as strength, adhesion, watertightness, chemical resistance, freeze-thaw durability and abrasion resistance are generally improved to a great extent by polymer replacement. Since the bond between polymeric binders and aggregates is very strong, its strength properties depend on those of the aggregates.
On the other hand, its poor thermal and fi re resistance and its large temperature dependence of mechanical properties are disadvantages due to the undesirable properties of the polymer matrix phases. Therefore, the glass transition point (or temperature) of the polymer matrix phases should be noted from the viewpoint of such thermal properties.
Thermoplastic resins generally retain their practical properties at temperatures below the glass transition point and lose them at temperatures exceeding the point, beginning to thermally decompose at somewhat higher temperatures.
The practical temperature range of the thermoplastic resins may be improved by the addition of suitable cross-linking monomers or comonomers having higher glass transition points.
Thermosetting resins do not commonly show a glass transition point, and retain their mechanical properties up to the thermal decomposition temperature. Such essential disadvantages of the polymer concrete can be considerably improved by controlling the necessary polymeric binder content by volume to a minimum.
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Culverts are one of those things that seem so obvious that you never take the time to even consider them. They are also so common that the practically blend into the background. But without them, life in this world would be a bit more complicated.
Imagine you are designing a brand new roadway to connect point A to point B, it would be nice if the landscape between these points was perfectly flat, with no obstructions or topographic relief. But, that’s rarely true. More likely, on the way, you will encounter hills and valleys, structures and streams, and you will have to decide how to deal with each one.
Your road can go around some obstacles, but for the most part you will have to work with what you have got.
A roadway has to have gentle curves both horizontally and vertically, so you might have to take some soil or rock from the high spots and build up the low spots along the way, also called cut and fill.
But you have got to be careful about filling in low spots, because that’s where water flows. Sometimes it’s obvious like rivers or perennial streams, but lots of watercourses are ephemeral, meaning they only flow when it trains.
If you fill across any low area in the natural landscape, you run the risk of creating an inpoundment. If the water get through your embankment, it’s going to flow over the top. Not only this lead to damage of the roadway, it can be extremly dangerous to motorists and other vehiclets.
One obvious solution to this problem is a bridge : the classic way to drive a vehicle over a body of water. But, bridges are expensive. You have to hire a structural engineer, install supports, girders and road decks. It’s just not feasible for most small creeks and ditches.
So instead we do fill the low spots in, but we include a pipe so the water can get through. That pipe is called a culvert, and there’s actually quite a bit of engineering behind this innocuous bit of infrastructure.
A culvert really only has two jobs : it has to be able to hold up the weight of the traffic passing over without collapsing, and it has to be able to let enough water pass through overtopping the roadway. Both jobs are pretty complicated, but it’s the second one which is the most important.
In fact, there are eight factors that can influence the hydraulics of a culvert :
Following are the types of culverts generally used in construction:
The pipe-arch culvert is a simple structure that looks like a half-circle-shaped culvert.
It is suitable for larger waterway opening, but the flow should be stable where fishes can be provided with greater hydraulic advantage and they are artistic and it provides low clearance.
The culverts are constructed in the form of one or more rectangular or square openings, in their top slabs.
The box culverts made up of concrete specially R.C.C. materials. They used to dispose of rainwater so, these are not useful in dry periods.
This culvert’s construction is preferable, especially in loose soil conditions, and for a larger span and also it requires a good foundation, and not be used for larger velocity.
For a single span of 3 m or for a double span of 6 m width, such type of culverts can be used. The thickness range of the R.C.C slab should be kept within 1.25 to 2.5 m.
There is a sudden change that occurs in the section of bending moment and shearing force due to the sinking of the culvert. Box culvert is a rigid frame and simple construction.
Pressure on the soil is reduced due to the bottom slab of a culvert.
Box culvert is economical due to there is no need to provide a separate foundation and also rigidity.
The arch culvert involves the construction of a superstructure its superstructure consisting of one or two segmental arches consisting of brick masonry, concrete, stone masonry is commonly used.
The arch culverts are not provided with the piers to the sides of the abutment.
Following are the advantages of Arc Culvert,
Pipe culverts are widely used culverts and rounded in shape. The culverts may be of single in number or multiple. If single pipe culvert is used then larger diameter culvert is installed. If the width of channel is greater than we will go for multiple pipe culverts. They are suitable for larger flows very well. The diameter of pipe culverts ranges from 1 meter to 6m. These are made of concrete or steel etc..
Bridge culverts are provided on canals or rivers and also used as road bridges for vehicles. For this culverts a foundation is laid under the ground surface. A series of culverts are laid and pavement surface is laid on top this series of culverts. Generally these are rectangular shaped culverts these can replace the box culverts if artificial floor is not necessary.
